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Luận văn tiếng Anh: A study on second-year navigation students' difficulties in learning ESP vocabulary at Haiphong Poli-technical College = Nghiên cứu những khó khăn trong việc học từ vựng tiếng Anh chuyên ngành của sinh viên năm thứ hai ngành điều khiển tàu biển tại trường Cao đẳng nghề Bách nghệ Hải Phòng. M.A Thesis Linguistics: 60 14 10
Nhà xuất bản: ĐHNN
Ngày: 2010
Chủ đề: Từ vựng
Phương pháp dạy học
Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành
Miêu tả: 41 p. + CD-ROM
M.A Thesis. English methodology – University of Languages and International Studies. Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 2010
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Declaration of originality i
Acknowledgement ii
Abstract iii
Table of contents iv
List of abbreviations vii
List of tables and charts viii
Part 1: Introduction 1
1. Rationale of the study 1
2. Aims of the study 2
3. Scope of the study 2
4. Methods of the study 2
5. Significance of the study 3
6. Design of the study 3
Part 2: Development 4
Chapter 1: Literature review 4
1.1. English for Special Purposes 4
1.1.1. Definition of ESP 4
1.1.2. Classification of ESP 5
1.1.3. Maritime English 6
1.1.4. The requirements for ESP teachers 6
1.2. Terminology 7
1.2.1. Definition of terminology 7
1.2.2. Characteristics of terminology 8
1.3. Vocabulary 8
1.3.1. Definition of words 8
1.3.2. Classification of words 9
1.3.3. Four strands in learning vocabulary 9
1.4. Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition 10
1.4.1. Learner styles and learner strategies 107
1.4.2. Materials 11
1.4.3. Pronunciation and spelling 12
1.4.4. Prototypes 12
1.4.5. Contextualization 13
1.4.6. Learner autonomy 13
1.5. Strategies to enhance students‟ vocabulary 14
1.5.1. Developing a variety of techniques for the teaching of meaning 14
1.5.2. Encouraging the development of effective strategies 14
1.5.3. Exposing learners to vocabulary through reading and training lexical
inferencing 14
1.5.4. Teaching the effective use of dictionaries 14
1.5.5. Evaluating the vocabulary component of course books 15
1.5.6. Teaching vocabulary explicitly through a range of activity types 15
1.5.7. Developing resources for vocabulary teaching 15
1.6. Summary 15
Chapter 2: Methodology 16
2.1. Context of the study 16
2.2. Research question 16
2.3. Subjects of the study 17
2.4. Data collection instruments 17
2.4.1. Questionnaire 17
2.4.2. Test 17
2.4.3. Interview 18
2.5. Data collection procedure 18
Chapter 3: Data analysis, major findings and suggested solutions 19
3.1. Data analysis 19
3.1.1. Questionnaire 19
3.1.2. Test 26
3.1.3. Interview 30
3.2. Major findings 32
3.2.1. Lack of necessary GE knowledge 32
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3.2.2. ESP vocabulary pronunciation and meanings 32
3.2.3. Inappropriate materials 32
3.2.4. Lack of effective strategies for learning ESP vocabulary 33
3.2.5. Difficulties in teaching ESP words 33
3.2.6. Lack of learner autonomy 33
3.3. Suggested solutions 34
3.3.1. Enhancing the necessary GE knowledge 34
3.3.2. Developing resources for ESP vocabulary teaching and learning 34
3.3.3. Encouraging the development of effective vocabulary learning strategies 35
3.3.4. Developing the effective ESP vocabulary teaching 36
3.3.5. Encouraging students to form their learning autonomy 36
Part 3: Conclusion 37
1. Summary of the study 37
2. Limitations of the study 38
3. Suggestions for further study 38
References 39
Appendices I
Appendix 1: Questionnaire I
Appendix 2: Test IV
Appendix 3: Answer keys to the test VII
Appendix 4: Interview questions for ESP teachers VIII9
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ESP: English for Specific Purposes
EBE: English for Business and Economics
ESS: English for Social Science
EST: English for Science and Technology
EAP: English for Academic Purposes
EOP: English for Occupational Purpose
GB: Great Britain
GE: General English
UK: The United Kingdom
USA: The United States of America
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LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS
Chart 1: Time length of learning English before college entrance
Table 1: Results in learning basic English
Chart 2: Most difficult part of ESP vocabulary
Table 2: Obstacles with ESP vocabulary learning materials
Table 3: Problems with learning ESP vocabulary in the course books
Chart 3: Teachers‟ instructing the meanings of ESP vocabulary
Chart 4: Teachers‟ instructing the uses of ESP vocabulary
Chart 5: Students‟ ways to learn new ESP words
Table 4: Students‟ practising ESP vocabulary during the class time
Table 5: Ways of revising ESP vocabulary
Table 6: Realization of transcription
Table 7: Realization of stressed syllable positions
Table 8: Recognition of word meanings in contexts
Table 9: Uses of word when describing the subject contents
Table 10: Uses of ESP word11
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study
Words take an important part in our daily social and occupational communications.
With teaching and learning English, especially English for Specific Purposes, words
appear as the materials and products of these procedures. McCarthy has stated that “no
matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successful the sounds of L2
are mastered, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in an L2
just cannot happen in any meaningful way.” (1990: viii)
When working as seamen on board the vessels, especially multi-lingual ones, the
Vietnamese seafarers need sufficient knowledge of navigation and good competence of
English of at least an elementary level. Students at the Navigational Faculty of Haiphong
Poly-technical College will become future seamen on board, thus good competence of
English language is necessary for them in both speaking and listening. They have to learn
technical terms about deck equipment, departure, anchoring and pilotage. It is also required
that they should learn specific vocabulary such as the weather station, magnetic compasses,
ventilator, funnel, gyro compasses, GPS, steering stand, navigation lights, engine order
telegraph, control consol, navigation table, communication station, emergency equipment,
anchor, hatch, hawser, and other appliances on board the vessels. They also need to know
English vocabulary about operations in hoisting gangways, mooring ropes, cargo handling,
and keeping watches, hear steering orders and repeat them for confirmation before
operation.
The second-year students of the Navigation Faculty of Haiphong Poly-technical
College start to learn maritime English at the beginning of their third term. Their course
book is English I for Navigation Students, which has been composed and brought into use
for one course. Through my teaching experience, I have discovered that there have been
some obstacles while the students have been learning their maritime English vocabulary,
although the teachers have tried their best to instruct them. After a number of periods
learning maritime vocabulary, the learners seem unable to remember correct words or to
use the right one for their learning purposes. Some admit that they wish to widen their
quantity of vocabulary but they lack suitable ways.
In order to discover the problems with the learning Maritime English vocabulary which
navigation students may face, we carry out this study on the second-year navigation
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students‟ difficulties in learning major vocabulary. Certain ways to overcome the obstacles
for the navigation students will be drawn out from the results of this study.
2. Aims of the study
On doing this minor research, we aim at finding out the difficulties which the secondyear students have in learning maritime English vocabulary and some possible causes of
these difficulties. Five suggested solutions will be provided to Giúp second-year students
overcome these obstacles.
3. Scope of the study
There have been a number of investigations on the difficulties in learning English
vocabulary up to now. This assignment covers some of the navigation students‟ prevailing
obstacles in learning maritime English vocabulary. The participants are 122 second-year
navigation students and four other ESP teachers at Haiphong Poly-technical College. The
results of this study will be used as suggestions for better teaching and learning ESP
vocabulary at Navigation Faculty of the college.
4. Methods of the study
When carrying out this assignment, the author prepares a questionnaire, a test and an
interview to investigate the second-year navigation students‟ difficulties in learning
maritime English vocabulary and find out some possible causes of these difficulties.
The questionnaire consists of 10 questions, basing on the information in the literature
review part and the aims of the study. This questionnaire is prepared in Vietnamese for the
learners to read, think and answer suitably and adequately. After that it is delivered to
second-year navigation students, and the answers are collected and analyzed. The real
difficulties in learning maritime English vocabulary and some possible causes to these
difficulties will be found out.
A test paper with two exercises on maritime vocabulary is also designed for the
learners, who have fulfilled the questionnaire, to take. The results of this minor test will
Giúp find out the students‟ actual difficulties in learning maritime English vocabulary.
Besides, an interview with four other teachers teaching English I for Navigation
Students to the second-year students is also conducted. Each teacher is given four
questions and their answers will contribute to consolidating our findings about the
students‟ difficulties in learning ESP words and suggesting some solutions to overcome
those difficulties.13
5. Significance of the study
Theoretically, this study will Giúp us to uncover the second-year students‟ obstacles in
learning the maritime vocabulary. A clearer look into the reasons for these difficulties will
also be gained, and some suggested solutions will be drawn out.
Practically, it suggests a certain ways in teaching and learning vocabulary to Giúp the
students overcome these difficulties so that they can be confident not only in learning
maritime English vocabulary but also in using these words for their future jobs on board
seagoing vessels.
6. Design of the study
The thesis consists of three main parts as follows:
Part 1: Introduction
This component of the study includes the rationale, aims, scope, methods, significance
and design of the study. The readers are provided with the reasons for choosing the
research issue, the research questions, the boundary of the investigation, the ways to carry
out the study and its organization.
Part 2: Development
This part contains three chapters.
Chapter 1 reviews some theoretical background for this study. It focuses on the English
for Special Purposes, vocabulary, terminology, factors affecting learning vocabulary, and
strategies to enhance students‟ vocabulary.
Chapter 2 introduces the methodology of this study. It provides some necessary
information about the context of the study, research questions, subjects of the study, data
collection instruments and data collection procedure.
Chapter 3 represents the data collection analysis on the questionnaire, test and
interview. Some major findings based on the analysis will be drawn out, and some
suggested solutions to the difficulties which the navigation students cope with when
learning ESP vocabulary, the possible causes of these difficulties and some solutions will
be included in this chapter.
Part 3 is the conclusion, which summarizes the study, states its limitations, and
suggests further investigation into the problem.
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PART 2: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter introduces some background information about English for Specific
Purposes, vocabulary, terminology, factors affecting learning vocabulary, and some
strategies to enhance students‟ vocabulary.
1.1. English for Specific Purposes
1.1.1. Definition of ESP
To understand the term ESP correctly, we will ponder on certain following
clarifications. The first one is that of Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 19). They define ESP
as „an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are
based on the learners‟ reason for learning‟. This elucidation emphasizes that ESP should
pay suitable attention to the learners and their motions for studying it.
In an understandable way, Martin (1992: 16-23) has explained the E, S and P elements
of ESP. The „S‟ element is inclined to mean „specifiable‟. For the „E‟ of ESP, there is a
general field of „languages for specific purposes‟ (LSP). The „P‟ in ESP refers to the
learner‟s purpose, which was defined as „a combination of pre-determined or pre-selected
goal and ongoing intentionality and motivation‟. This definition of ESP shows us a simple
segregation of the three elements and explanation of each one. We can see that the
learner‟s purposes on learning specific English have been mentioned clearly.
Evans and St John (1998: 2-5) use „absolute‟ and „variable‟ characteristics to clarify
the term ESP. Their definition is as follows: „1. Absolute characteristics: ESP is designed
to meet specific needs of the learner; ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and
activities of the discipline it serves; ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, and
register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities. 2. Variable
characteristics: ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines; ESP may use, in
specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English; ESP is
likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution of in a
professional work situation. It could, however, be used for learners at secondary school
level; ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP courses
assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners.‟ This
description broaches the ESP as satisfaction for a wide range of learner and their needs. It
consists of activities and some language factors suitable for the learners.15
As a teacher of ESP, the author shares the opinions that ESP serves the learner‟s needs.
This determines the learner‟s motivation, attitude and effort in learning ESP. For
vocational learning purposes, ESP may be a particular English language environment in
which learners study both the specific knowledge represented in this foreign language and
the communicative language skills needed for each specific field.
1.1.2. Classification of ESP
From the elucidation of ESP, it is inferred that the learners‟ needs lead to a number of
areas in ESP because these needs will differ from individuals to individuals and from
groups to groups. Different trends in classifying the term will be explored for particular
discussion.
In the „tree of ELT‟, Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 16-18) divide ESP into three
branches: English for Science and Technology (EST), English for Business and Economics
(EBE) and English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these branches is split into two
smaller parts: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational
Purposes, English for Vocational Purposes or Vocational English as a Second Language
(EOP, EVP or VESL). This classification, as they admit, „is not a clear-cut distinction:
people can work and study simultaneously; it is likely that in many cases the language
learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes
up, or returns to, a job‟.
Martin (1992: 39-41) suggests the varieties of ESP. He introduces five basic degrees of
specificity. These vary in the way that the learners‟ target objectives (skills, knowledge and
affect) are specifiable (whether by the teacher, the course sponsor or the learner).
- Type I: The targets are very specifiable, predictable or routine. Objectives are narrow
skills (content secondary) with specific and routine text-types encountered. For example,
an international hotel needs to train waiter or waitresses to serve in their restaurant.
- Type II: The targets are specifiable or predictable in terms of types. Objectives include
skills and some content. The text-types encountered can be identified as genres, routine
and non-routine. One example of this type is the English course not for specific company.
- Type III: The targets are half specifiable, half unpredictable. The objectives consist of
content and skills balanced. The text-types encountered contain a wide range of definable
types. An example of this type is the case in which the students of a polytechnic need to
cope with the English needed in the world of work after graduation.
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- Type IV: The targets are not primarily predictable, but with some important specifiable
elements. Objectives are content-focused and skills subordinate with a wide range of
variable and unpredictable text-types. For instance, the students need competency in all
skills, and at an advanced level, over a wide range of unpredictable content and text-types.
- Type V: There are very few specifiable or unpredictable targets. The objectives include
balanced content and skills with a wide range of definable text-types. Examples of this
type are general purpose courses for adults.
In the relation of five degrees to the traditional types of ESP, Martin (1992: 42-43)
specifies EOP objectives at Type I, II and II degrees and correlates EAP with type IV
specifiability.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) see the division of ESP branches as results of learner‟s
purposes in learning English. This way of classification only points out the names and the
learning targets of ESP division. In a different way, Martin also mentions the target ESP
objectives, and he introduces the varieties of ESP with the use of such terms as „learner‟s
target objectives‟ and „specifiable‟. The first way of classifying ESP seems a traditional
one, and the second appears as a modern one. The second division is preferable because it
presents the target, objectives and text-types.
1.1.3. Maritime English
From the above mentioned classification of ESP, it is inferred that maritime English is
considered as part of the EST, EOP and type III degree of specificity. This field of English
is used by seamen on board most kinds of vessels and in most countries in the world.
Jackson and Amvela (2000: 141-142) mentioned maritime English or sea-speak with airspeak as kinds of restricted language. „Its restrictedness is meant to facilitate
communication between air and ground and between sea and land, both by being a limited
set of words to learn and speak, and by being limited set of words and combinations of
words to hear and understand in radio transmission‟. This view classifies maritime English
as a small component of ESP, in which a sufficient boundary of language content is used to
exchange information.
1.1.4. The requirements for ESP teachers
Whether the ESP teacher should master the materials or content of the subject matter
seems a debating issue. Two points of view will be introduced in this part for typical
consideration.17
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 157) think that „ESP teachers do not need to learn
specialist subject knowledge‟. They list three requirements of the ESP teachers as follows:
- a positive attitude towards the ESP content;
- a knowledge of the fundamental principles of the subject area;
- an awareness of how much they probably already know.
When mentioning the roles of the ESP practitioner, Evans and St John (1998: 13-14)
claim that „the teacher is not in the position of the „primary knower‟ of the carrier content
of the material‟. They also believe that „the teachers have clear objectives for the class and
a good understanding of the carrier content of the teaching material. ESP teachers also
need to have a great deal of flexibility, to be willing to listen to learners, and to take an
interest in the disciplines or professional activities the students are involved in.‟
Both of the ways to point out the roles of ESP teachers have their own importance.
They imply that the teachers should be aware of the students‟ needs, have basic knowledge
of the subject areas, and act as actual learners. In the author‟s point of view, ESP teachers
need to master somehow the specific knowledge of the major subject and fundamental
teaching knowledge so that they can Giúp the learners better and more thoroughly.
Vocational students need to use simple but effective specific English in their working
conditions, therefore, the language skills are learnt in a combination with specific
knowledge for better communication.
1.2. Terminology
1.2.1. Definition of terminology
Terminology is defined as „the process of compiling, describing, processing and
presenting the terms of special subject fields in one or more languages‟. It is „not an end
itself, but addresses social needs and attempts to optimize communication among
specialists and professionals by providing assistance either directly or to translator or to
committees concerned with the standardization of a language‟. (Cabré, 1999: 10-12)
Terminology may be considered as a system of words or symbols to name a typical
phenomenon or phenomena in natural and social research fields in a scientific way. It also
includes necessary methods in language contents and study to reach sufficient and suitable
terms. Additively, there may be terms which are accepted and used by a large number of
individuals and terms which are admitted by a restricted group of persons.
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1.2.2. Characteristics of terminology
Features of terminology have been mentioned in certain research works since the
appearance of this field. One of the theories in terminology concentrates on „assigning
terms to concepts‟. This research field is „primarily concerned with the relationship
between the real objects in the real world and the concepts represent them‟. (Cabré, 1999:
7-8) Terminology also cares about the „nature of things in the real world‟ and the
relationships formed in this world. (Cabré, 1999: 8) In addition, it is considered as „closely
linked to the special subject fields‟. Subject specialists and terminologists may cooperate to
arrange and standardize „the concepts and terms for each special field‟. (Cabré, 1999: 9)
In summary, terminology focuses on the process from the concept to the term. It also
concerns the features of things in the reality and the relationships in that real world, and
may be used for specific subject field. Within the limit of this study, the author follows the
viewpoint by Nguyen Thien Giap (1998) on the basic characteristics of terminology. The
first characteristic is preciseness, which mentions the concepts in terminology as accurate
concepts of a particular science. The second feature is systematization, which asserts that
the terms cannot exist individually, but they are always present as elements of a particular
term system. The last characteristic of terminology is internationality, which refers to
terminology as special part of vocabulary presenting general scientific concepts for persons
speaking different languages. (Nguyen, 1998: 271-275, self translation)
1.3. Vocabulary
1.3.1. Definition of words
It is widely agreed that words Giúp forming a language, their meanings can be exposed
in real communication and usage, and successful usage of a word depends on intelligent
and positive minds.
We may see vocabulary of a language as the words of that language. Words are
considered as „freestanding items of a language that have meaning.‟ (McCarthy, 1990: 3)
According to Ur (1996: 60), “vocabulary can be defined, roughly, as the words we teach in
the foreign language.”
Jackson and Amvela (2000: 50) consider the word as „an uninterruptible unit of
structure consisting of one or more morphemes and which typically occurs in the structure
of phrases. The morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the minimal
meaningful units of language‟. They also state that “lexical words are nouns, verbs,19
adjectives and adverbs‟ and „grammatical words are elements like prepositions, articles,
conjunctions, forms indicating number or tenses, etc.‟
In conclusion, the researchers have their particular ways of defining the term „word‟.
Taking the learning and teaching ESP into account, words may be considered as what to
learn and to teach and also what to Giúp the two procedures to happen smoothly. When
dealing with new ESP words, we should learn their meanings, pronunciation, spelling and
uses in real communication on board vessels.
1.3.2. Classification of words
There are a number of ways to divide words into their corresponding groups. We can
consider the following ways of classifying them.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 165-166) mention four types of vocabulary: structural
(because, we, just, those, etc.), general (cargo, vessel, anchor, seaman, habour, etc.), subtechnical (boiler, derrick, pump, piston, etc.) and technical (starboard side, port side,
evacuation, gypsy, etc.).
Another categorization by McCarthy (1990) considers the terms core vocabulary and
procedural vocabulary. Core words may be „the most frequently occurring ones‟ in any
given lexical field. We use procedural vocabulary to state other words, to rephrase them
and explain them and to arrange them in communication. (1990: 49-52)
The first arrangement of words seems simpler and lists the ESP word types of technical
fields. The second one, on the other hand, uses two general concepts to segregate the
vocabulary in usage. For the goals of using the ESP vocabulary in real communication on
board vessels, we should divide the English words into sub-groups: one sub-group based
on the learners‟ needs, the other depending on the usefulness of the vocabulary items and
the last not of these two aspects. (Meara, 2002: 37)
1.3.3. Four strands in learning vocabulary
In his researches into vocabulary teaching and learning, Nation (2003: 133-134) has
broached four strands which applied for all aspects of language in general and for
vocabulary learning in particular. These strands have disclosed the relationship between
learning vocabulary with the four language skills, fluency and language features.
1.3.3.1. Learning from meaning-focused input
This strand includes learning vocabulary from listening and reading. The learners of
English should have known ninety-eight percent of the occurring words, and the rest will
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be conjectured from the contexts and will not prevent „comprehension of the text‟. (Nation,
2003: 133)
1.3.3.2. Deliberate learning
The deliberate learning strand (form-focused instruction, language-focused learning or
language study) comprises „paying deliberate attention to language features such as sounds,
spelling, vocabulary, grammar, or discourse that are presented out of context‟. The clearest
technique is „learning new vocabulary by memorizing their first language translation‟.
(Nation, 2003: 134)
1.3.3.3. Learning from meaning-focused output
This strand consists of learning vocabulary „through speaking and writing where the
learners‟ main attention is on communication messages‟. Using the „productive skills as
sources of vocabulary learning‟ can enhance learning. (Nation, 2003: 134)
1.3.3.3. Fluency development
The fluency development strand of a language course intends to assist learners in
making „the best use of what they already know‟. Fluency may be considered as related to
each of the four language skills with fluency requiring to be developed individually in each
of these skills. (Nation, 2003: 134)
1.4. Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition
For the purpose of the study, learner styles and learner strategies, materials,
pronunciation and spelling, prototypes, contextualization and learner autonomy are
mentioned and discussed as factors affecting vocabulary acquisition.
1.4.1. Learner styles and learner strategies
According to Hedge (2000: 18-19), learning style can be generally defined as „a
characteristic and preferred way of approaching learning and processing information‟. She
also adds that „culture, as learned by the child from family, community, and school, has a
strong influence on learning style‟.
Learning strategies are „techniques used by learners to deal with input, assimilate new
language, store, retrieve, and practise using it‟. (Hedge, 2000: 19) Teachers and textbook
writers „have attempted both to find ways of improving the strategies learners already have
and to raise their awareness about others they might develop‟. (Hedge, 2000: 19) There are
some types of learner strategy to consider such as cognitive, meta-cognitive,
communication and socio-affective strategies.21
Willing (1989: 9-10) thinks cognitive style as the „individuals‟ unique methods of
operation in the mental sphere.‟ These styles also correlate very highly with certain broad,
psychological and personality factors.
„Learning strategies may mean possession of specific study skills or techniques; a
general ability to take the initiative or simply, an enthusiasm for learning.‟ They can be
grouped into two parts. The first one is managing the learning processes, which includes a
number of activities „suggested to Giúp learners become aware of the nature of language
and language-learning and of their own preferences, habits, strengths and weaknesses as
learners‟. The second part is managing information, which encourages „learners to take
more responsibility for planning and evaluating their own learn‟. (Willing, 1989: 1-5)
As a whole, learning styles refer to individual choice of cognition. A number of
elements such as culture, psychology and personality make influence on learning styles.
Selecting the suitable manner for a student requires his or her learning experience and
assessment. Thus, as teachers, we should suggest choosing the most appropriate learning
style for each learner as well as encouraging them to follow their right styles.
Learning strategies refer to techniques in mastering a language item or skills. The
former view point has listed four groups of learning strategy in a brief way. The latter
classifies these into two parts (managing the learning processes and managing information).
This classification seems a detailed and useful guidance for learners and teachers to
improve English language acquisition processes.
1.4.2. Materials
It appears as an agreement that materials affect the learning vocabulary in a supportive
way. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 107-108) define some principles in the actual writing
of the materials as follows:
a. Materials provide a stimulus to learn. Good materials do not teach: they encourage
learners to learn.
b. Materials Giúp to organise the teaching-learning process, by providing a path through
the complex mass of the language to be learnt.
c. Materials embody a view of the nature of language and learning.
d. Materials reflect the nature of the learning task.
e. Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of teacher training,
by introducing teachers to new techniques.
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f. Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use.
Evans and St. John (1998: 170-172) introduce some reasons for using materials
significant in the ESP contexts. Materials can be a source of language, a learning support,
for motivation and stimulation and for reference. As a source of language, „materials need
to present real language, as it is used, and the full range that learners require‟. As a learning
support, materials need to „involve learners in thinking about and using the language. The
activities need to stimulate cognitive not mechanism processes. The learner also needs a
sense of progression.‟ Materials also need to be challenging yet achievable; to offer new
ideas and information; to encourage fun and creativity. For self-study or reference
purposes, materials need to be complete, well laid out and self explanatory.
It can be concluded that materials assist the learning and teaching procedures.
Materials act as resources for language learning. For ESP vocabulary learning, the
materials should be utilized for acquiring the word meanings and practising the word uses.
1.4.3. Pronunciation and spelling
The difference between pronunciation and spelling among the languages may lead to
difficulties in learning the vocabulary of a particular language as a foreign one. Schmitt
and McCarthy (1997: 142-145) conclude that „there may be a gap between the learner‟s
ability to perceive a word and his/ her ability to pronounce it correctly‟. Correct
pronunciation of a word inquires the correct stress syllable. Also, there may be difficulties
due to „the learner‟s inability to discriminate between some phonemes and subsequent
confusion of words differing precisely in these problematic phonemes‟. (Schmitt and
McCarthy, 1997: 143) In addition to this, „the degree of sound-script correspondence in a
word is a facilitating- or difficulty-inducing factor‟. (Schmitt and McCarthy, 1997:144) An
English written word may give no evidence for its similarity in pronouncing. Long words
are considered as more problematical ones than the short because of the quantity of input.
1.4.4. Prototypes
Hedge (2000: 123) introduces the prototypes as one of the culturally affected factors
influencing acquisition. These prototypes are defined as the foremost example of a
particular conceptual category, the one that springs most easily to mind when a learner
hears a word. For example, we may see or hear the word „vessel‟. If a general cargo vessel
is the kind of vessel the learner first thinks of, it is a prototype, and other vessels are nonprototypes.23
McCarthy (1990: 45) states that „in any given field, some words will seem more salient,
will spring more immediately to mind, and will be perceive as classic example of that
field‟. He also says that „for a variety of reasons, some cultural, some personal it seems
shared widely across speech communities, certain entities are seen as more central
representatives of their class than others.‟
Both of the researchers may share the same ideas that prototypes refer to the first image
or notion of a word occurring in the learner‟s head when he or she hears or reads it.
Learners need to be provided with precise and typical pictures related to the vocabulary
items to form suitable prototypes.
1.4.5. Contextualization
Davies and Pearse (2000: 63) state that „an appropriate context helps learners begin to
understand the use of the item as well as its basic meaning. The item is associated with a
certain type of context or situation.‟
„If learners have to perform certain activities on unfamiliar words in texts, there is a
good chance of retaining the words. The activities comprise guessing meaning from
context and from word to word, verifying meaning by checking in a dictionary, and
analysis of the word form to recognize relationships between the new word and others
already known.‟ (Hedge, 2000: 120)
It is agreed that vocabulary is better acquired not in an isolated form but in a context or
situation. Although a learner has grasped the pronunciation, spelling and meaning of a
word, a text with the appearance of that word will Giúp deepen the word storage in the
learner‟s mind.
1.4.6. Learner autonomy
The first sentiment to the learner autonomy states that „learners can be encouraged to
develop their own personal learning styles for vocabulary, in such areas as memorizing and
retaining new words‟. (McCarthy, 1990: 129-130)
Another view by Hedge (2000) draws out the perceptions of the self-directed learners,
from which some key characteristics of a learner who can take responsibility for learning
are introduced. These are „an ability to define one‟s own objectives; awareness of how to
use language materials effectively; careful organization of time for learning, and active
development of learning strategies‟. (Hedge, 2000: 76-79)
1. Further practice and development of associations can be encouraged by reviewing
the words in conjunction with the pictures but embedding the words in other relevant
language, thus associating the pictures with other objects or experiences.
2. Written records of words could be made by learners on the worksheet – using copies
of the pictures if possible.
(Willing, 1989: 96-97)
3.3.4. Developing the effective ESP vocabulary teaching
It is required that the teachers should prepare more careful and completed lesson plans,
and apply suitable techniques in teaching the word meanings and uses and instructing the
learners to do their exercises. For example, we should make use of visual aids to illustrate
the meanings of ESP words, associate the four language skills during practice time, and use
verbal or antonym explanation. The evaluation of the course book should be made and
appropriate adaptation should be done on this book by choosing necessary information to
teach and add further knowledge units to each lesson.
3.3.5. Encouraging students to form their learning autonomy
To learn ESP effectively, the students should build their own study objectives for all
aspects of English subject, not only the vocabulary. They should stipulate the needs to
learn ESP words, and learn how to manage their learning time so that they can study their
vocabulary lessons in English and other subjects comprehensibly. They should also choose
the right periods of time during a day for their study because there are some durations of
time when each human being is most biologically concentrative. In short, each navigation
student should form their own learning autonomy in order to master their study and success.
It is important that we should pay more attention to the application of the fourth and the
last suggested solutions when considering the conditions in Haiphong Poly-technical
College. The navigation students‟ difficulties in learning ESP vocabulary have partly
resulted from the ineffective teaching.
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Nhà xuất bản: ĐHNN
Ngày: 2010
Chủ đề: Từ vựng
Phương pháp dạy học
Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành
Miêu tả: 41 p. + CD-ROM
M.A Thesis. English methodology – University of Languages and International Studies. Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 2010
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Declaration of originality i
Acknowledgement ii
Abstract iii
Table of contents iv
List of abbreviations vii
List of tables and charts viii
Part 1: Introduction 1
1. Rationale of the study 1
2. Aims of the study 2
3. Scope of the study 2
4. Methods of the study 2
5. Significance of the study 3
6. Design of the study 3
Part 2: Development 4
Chapter 1: Literature review 4
1.1. English for Special Purposes 4
1.1.1. Definition of ESP 4
1.1.2. Classification of ESP 5
1.1.3. Maritime English 6
1.1.4. The requirements for ESP teachers 6
1.2. Terminology 7
1.2.1. Definition of terminology 7
1.2.2. Characteristics of terminology 8
1.3. Vocabulary 8
1.3.1. Definition of words 8
1.3.2. Classification of words 9
1.3.3. Four strands in learning vocabulary 9
1.4. Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition 10
1.4.1. Learner styles and learner strategies 107
1.4.2. Materials 11
1.4.3. Pronunciation and spelling 12
1.4.4. Prototypes 12
1.4.5. Contextualization 13
1.4.6. Learner autonomy 13
1.5. Strategies to enhance students‟ vocabulary 14
1.5.1. Developing a variety of techniques for the teaching of meaning 14
1.5.2. Encouraging the development of effective strategies 14
1.5.3. Exposing learners to vocabulary through reading and training lexical
inferencing 14
1.5.4. Teaching the effective use of dictionaries 14
1.5.5. Evaluating the vocabulary component of course books 15
1.5.6. Teaching vocabulary explicitly through a range of activity types 15
1.5.7. Developing resources for vocabulary teaching 15
1.6. Summary 15
Chapter 2: Methodology 16
2.1. Context of the study 16
2.2. Research question 16
2.3. Subjects of the study 17
2.4. Data collection instruments 17
2.4.1. Questionnaire 17
2.4.2. Test 17
2.4.3. Interview 18
2.5. Data collection procedure 18
Chapter 3: Data analysis, major findings and suggested solutions 19
3.1. Data analysis 19
3.1.1. Questionnaire 19
3.1.2. Test 26
3.1.3. Interview 30
3.2. Major findings 32
3.2.1. Lack of necessary GE knowledge 32
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3.2.2. ESP vocabulary pronunciation and meanings 32
3.2.3. Inappropriate materials 32
3.2.4. Lack of effective strategies for learning ESP vocabulary 33
3.2.5. Difficulties in teaching ESP words 33
3.2.6. Lack of learner autonomy 33
3.3. Suggested solutions 34
3.3.1. Enhancing the necessary GE knowledge 34
3.3.2. Developing resources for ESP vocabulary teaching and learning 34
3.3.3. Encouraging the development of effective vocabulary learning strategies 35
3.3.4. Developing the effective ESP vocabulary teaching 36
3.3.5. Encouraging students to form their learning autonomy 36
Part 3: Conclusion 37
1. Summary of the study 37
2. Limitations of the study 38
3. Suggestions for further study 38
References 39
Appendices I
Appendix 1: Questionnaire I
Appendix 2: Test IV
Appendix 3: Answer keys to the test VII
Appendix 4: Interview questions for ESP teachers VIII9
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ESP: English for Specific Purposes
EBE: English for Business and Economics
ESS: English for Social Science
EST: English for Science and Technology
EAP: English for Academic Purposes
EOP: English for Occupational Purpose
GB: Great Britain
GE: General English
UK: The United Kingdom
USA: The United States of America
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LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS
Chart 1: Time length of learning English before college entrance
Table 1: Results in learning basic English
Chart 2: Most difficult part of ESP vocabulary
Table 2: Obstacles with ESP vocabulary learning materials
Table 3: Problems with learning ESP vocabulary in the course books
Chart 3: Teachers‟ instructing the meanings of ESP vocabulary
Chart 4: Teachers‟ instructing the uses of ESP vocabulary
Chart 5: Students‟ ways to learn new ESP words
Table 4: Students‟ practising ESP vocabulary during the class time
Table 5: Ways of revising ESP vocabulary
Table 6: Realization of transcription
Table 7: Realization of stressed syllable positions
Table 8: Recognition of word meanings in contexts
Table 9: Uses of word when describing the subject contents
Table 10: Uses of ESP word11
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study
Words take an important part in our daily social and occupational communications.
With teaching and learning English, especially English for Specific Purposes, words
appear as the materials and products of these procedures. McCarthy has stated that “no
matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successful the sounds of L2
are mastered, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in an L2
just cannot happen in any meaningful way.” (1990: viii)
When working as seamen on board the vessels, especially multi-lingual ones, the
Vietnamese seafarers need sufficient knowledge of navigation and good competence of
English of at least an elementary level. Students at the Navigational Faculty of Haiphong
Poly-technical College will become future seamen on board, thus good competence of
English language is necessary for them in both speaking and listening. They have to learn
technical terms about deck equipment, departure, anchoring and pilotage. It is also required
that they should learn specific vocabulary such as the weather station, magnetic compasses,
ventilator, funnel, gyro compasses, GPS, steering stand, navigation lights, engine order
telegraph, control consol, navigation table, communication station, emergency equipment,
anchor, hatch, hawser, and other appliances on board the vessels. They also need to know
English vocabulary about operations in hoisting gangways, mooring ropes, cargo handling,
and keeping watches, hear steering orders and repeat them for confirmation before
operation.
The second-year students of the Navigation Faculty of Haiphong Poly-technical
College start to learn maritime English at the beginning of their third term. Their course
book is English I for Navigation Students, which has been composed and brought into use
for one course. Through my teaching experience, I have discovered that there have been
some obstacles while the students have been learning their maritime English vocabulary,
although the teachers have tried their best to instruct them. After a number of periods
learning maritime vocabulary, the learners seem unable to remember correct words or to
use the right one for their learning purposes. Some admit that they wish to widen their
quantity of vocabulary but they lack suitable ways.
In order to discover the problems with the learning Maritime English vocabulary which
navigation students may face, we carry out this study on the second-year navigation
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students‟ difficulties in learning major vocabulary. Certain ways to overcome the obstacles
for the navigation students will be drawn out from the results of this study.
2. Aims of the study
On doing this minor research, we aim at finding out the difficulties which the secondyear students have in learning maritime English vocabulary and some possible causes of
these difficulties. Five suggested solutions will be provided to Giúp second-year students
overcome these obstacles.
3. Scope of the study
There have been a number of investigations on the difficulties in learning English
vocabulary up to now. This assignment covers some of the navigation students‟ prevailing
obstacles in learning maritime English vocabulary. The participants are 122 second-year
navigation students and four other ESP teachers at Haiphong Poly-technical College. The
results of this study will be used as suggestions for better teaching and learning ESP
vocabulary at Navigation Faculty of the college.
4. Methods of the study
When carrying out this assignment, the author prepares a questionnaire, a test and an
interview to investigate the second-year navigation students‟ difficulties in learning
maritime English vocabulary and find out some possible causes of these difficulties.
The questionnaire consists of 10 questions, basing on the information in the literature
review part and the aims of the study. This questionnaire is prepared in Vietnamese for the
learners to read, think and answer suitably and adequately. After that it is delivered to
second-year navigation students, and the answers are collected and analyzed. The real
difficulties in learning maritime English vocabulary and some possible causes to these
difficulties will be found out.
A test paper with two exercises on maritime vocabulary is also designed for the
learners, who have fulfilled the questionnaire, to take. The results of this minor test will
Giúp find out the students‟ actual difficulties in learning maritime English vocabulary.
Besides, an interview with four other teachers teaching English I for Navigation
Students to the second-year students is also conducted. Each teacher is given four
questions and their answers will contribute to consolidating our findings about the
students‟ difficulties in learning ESP words and suggesting some solutions to overcome
those difficulties.13
5. Significance of the study
Theoretically, this study will Giúp us to uncover the second-year students‟ obstacles in
learning the maritime vocabulary. A clearer look into the reasons for these difficulties will
also be gained, and some suggested solutions will be drawn out.
Practically, it suggests a certain ways in teaching and learning vocabulary to Giúp the
students overcome these difficulties so that they can be confident not only in learning
maritime English vocabulary but also in using these words for their future jobs on board
seagoing vessels.
6. Design of the study
The thesis consists of three main parts as follows:
Part 1: Introduction
This component of the study includes the rationale, aims, scope, methods, significance
and design of the study. The readers are provided with the reasons for choosing the
research issue, the research questions, the boundary of the investigation, the ways to carry
out the study and its organization.
Part 2: Development
This part contains three chapters.
Chapter 1 reviews some theoretical background for this study. It focuses on the English
for Special Purposes, vocabulary, terminology, factors affecting learning vocabulary, and
strategies to enhance students‟ vocabulary.
Chapter 2 introduces the methodology of this study. It provides some necessary
information about the context of the study, research questions, subjects of the study, data
collection instruments and data collection procedure.
Chapter 3 represents the data collection analysis on the questionnaire, test and
interview. Some major findings based on the analysis will be drawn out, and some
suggested solutions to the difficulties which the navigation students cope with when
learning ESP vocabulary, the possible causes of these difficulties and some solutions will
be included in this chapter.
Part 3 is the conclusion, which summarizes the study, states its limitations, and
suggests further investigation into the problem.
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PART 2: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter introduces some background information about English for Specific
Purposes, vocabulary, terminology, factors affecting learning vocabulary, and some
strategies to enhance students‟ vocabulary.
1.1. English for Specific Purposes
1.1.1. Definition of ESP
To understand the term ESP correctly, we will ponder on certain following
clarifications. The first one is that of Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 19). They define ESP
as „an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are
based on the learners‟ reason for learning‟. This elucidation emphasizes that ESP should
pay suitable attention to the learners and their motions for studying it.
In an understandable way, Martin (1992: 16-23) has explained the E, S and P elements
of ESP. The „S‟ element is inclined to mean „specifiable‟. For the „E‟ of ESP, there is a
general field of „languages for specific purposes‟ (LSP). The „P‟ in ESP refers to the
learner‟s purpose, which was defined as „a combination of pre-determined or pre-selected
goal and ongoing intentionality and motivation‟. This definition of ESP shows us a simple
segregation of the three elements and explanation of each one. We can see that the
learner‟s purposes on learning specific English have been mentioned clearly.
Evans and St John (1998: 2-5) use „absolute‟ and „variable‟ characteristics to clarify
the term ESP. Their definition is as follows: „1. Absolute characteristics: ESP is designed
to meet specific needs of the learner; ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and
activities of the discipline it serves; ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, and
register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities. 2. Variable
characteristics: ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines; ESP may use, in
specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English; ESP is
likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution of in a
professional work situation. It could, however, be used for learners at secondary school
level; ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP courses
assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners.‟ This
description broaches the ESP as satisfaction for a wide range of learner and their needs. It
consists of activities and some language factors suitable for the learners.15
As a teacher of ESP, the author shares the opinions that ESP serves the learner‟s needs.
This determines the learner‟s motivation, attitude and effort in learning ESP. For
vocational learning purposes, ESP may be a particular English language environment in
which learners study both the specific knowledge represented in this foreign language and
the communicative language skills needed for each specific field.
1.1.2. Classification of ESP
From the elucidation of ESP, it is inferred that the learners‟ needs lead to a number of
areas in ESP because these needs will differ from individuals to individuals and from
groups to groups. Different trends in classifying the term will be explored for particular
discussion.
In the „tree of ELT‟, Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 16-18) divide ESP into three
branches: English for Science and Technology (EST), English for Business and Economics
(EBE) and English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these branches is split into two
smaller parts: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational
Purposes, English for Vocational Purposes or Vocational English as a Second Language
(EOP, EVP or VESL). This classification, as they admit, „is not a clear-cut distinction:
people can work and study simultaneously; it is likely that in many cases the language
learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes
up, or returns to, a job‟.
Martin (1992: 39-41) suggests the varieties of ESP. He introduces five basic degrees of
specificity. These vary in the way that the learners‟ target objectives (skills, knowledge and
affect) are specifiable (whether by the teacher, the course sponsor or the learner).
- Type I: The targets are very specifiable, predictable or routine. Objectives are narrow
skills (content secondary) with specific and routine text-types encountered. For example,
an international hotel needs to train waiter or waitresses to serve in their restaurant.
- Type II: The targets are specifiable or predictable in terms of types. Objectives include
skills and some content. The text-types encountered can be identified as genres, routine
and non-routine. One example of this type is the English course not for specific company.
- Type III: The targets are half specifiable, half unpredictable. The objectives consist of
content and skills balanced. The text-types encountered contain a wide range of definable
types. An example of this type is the case in which the students of a polytechnic need to
cope with the English needed in the world of work after graduation.
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- Type IV: The targets are not primarily predictable, but with some important specifiable
elements. Objectives are content-focused and skills subordinate with a wide range of
variable and unpredictable text-types. For instance, the students need competency in all
skills, and at an advanced level, over a wide range of unpredictable content and text-types.
- Type V: There are very few specifiable or unpredictable targets. The objectives include
balanced content and skills with a wide range of definable text-types. Examples of this
type are general purpose courses for adults.
In the relation of five degrees to the traditional types of ESP, Martin (1992: 42-43)
specifies EOP objectives at Type I, II and II degrees and correlates EAP with type IV
specifiability.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) see the division of ESP branches as results of learner‟s
purposes in learning English. This way of classification only points out the names and the
learning targets of ESP division. In a different way, Martin also mentions the target ESP
objectives, and he introduces the varieties of ESP with the use of such terms as „learner‟s
target objectives‟ and „specifiable‟. The first way of classifying ESP seems a traditional
one, and the second appears as a modern one. The second division is preferable because it
presents the target, objectives and text-types.
1.1.3. Maritime English
From the above mentioned classification of ESP, it is inferred that maritime English is
considered as part of the EST, EOP and type III degree of specificity. This field of English
is used by seamen on board most kinds of vessels and in most countries in the world.
Jackson and Amvela (2000: 141-142) mentioned maritime English or sea-speak with airspeak as kinds of restricted language. „Its restrictedness is meant to facilitate
communication between air and ground and between sea and land, both by being a limited
set of words to learn and speak, and by being limited set of words and combinations of
words to hear and understand in radio transmission‟. This view classifies maritime English
as a small component of ESP, in which a sufficient boundary of language content is used to
exchange information.
1.1.4. The requirements for ESP teachers
Whether the ESP teacher should master the materials or content of the subject matter
seems a debating issue. Two points of view will be introduced in this part for typical
consideration.17
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 157) think that „ESP teachers do not need to learn
specialist subject knowledge‟. They list three requirements of the ESP teachers as follows:
- a positive attitude towards the ESP content;
- a knowledge of the fundamental principles of the subject area;
- an awareness of how much they probably already know.
When mentioning the roles of the ESP practitioner, Evans and St John (1998: 13-14)
claim that „the teacher is not in the position of the „primary knower‟ of the carrier content
of the material‟. They also believe that „the teachers have clear objectives for the class and
a good understanding of the carrier content of the teaching material. ESP teachers also
need to have a great deal of flexibility, to be willing to listen to learners, and to take an
interest in the disciplines or professional activities the students are involved in.‟
Both of the ways to point out the roles of ESP teachers have their own importance.
They imply that the teachers should be aware of the students‟ needs, have basic knowledge
of the subject areas, and act as actual learners. In the author‟s point of view, ESP teachers
need to master somehow the specific knowledge of the major subject and fundamental
teaching knowledge so that they can Giúp the learners better and more thoroughly.
Vocational students need to use simple but effective specific English in their working
conditions, therefore, the language skills are learnt in a combination with specific
knowledge for better communication.
1.2. Terminology
1.2.1. Definition of terminology
Terminology is defined as „the process of compiling, describing, processing and
presenting the terms of special subject fields in one or more languages‟. It is „not an end
itself, but addresses social needs and attempts to optimize communication among
specialists and professionals by providing assistance either directly or to translator or to
committees concerned with the standardization of a language‟. (Cabré, 1999: 10-12)
Terminology may be considered as a system of words or symbols to name a typical
phenomenon or phenomena in natural and social research fields in a scientific way. It also
includes necessary methods in language contents and study to reach sufficient and suitable
terms. Additively, there may be terms which are accepted and used by a large number of
individuals and terms which are admitted by a restricted group of persons.
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1.2.2. Characteristics of terminology
Features of terminology have been mentioned in certain research works since the
appearance of this field. One of the theories in terminology concentrates on „assigning
terms to concepts‟. This research field is „primarily concerned with the relationship
between the real objects in the real world and the concepts represent them‟. (Cabré, 1999:
7-8) Terminology also cares about the „nature of things in the real world‟ and the
relationships formed in this world. (Cabré, 1999: 8) In addition, it is considered as „closely
linked to the special subject fields‟. Subject specialists and terminologists may cooperate to
arrange and standardize „the concepts and terms for each special field‟. (Cabré, 1999: 9)
In summary, terminology focuses on the process from the concept to the term. It also
concerns the features of things in the reality and the relationships in that real world, and
may be used for specific subject field. Within the limit of this study, the author follows the
viewpoint by Nguyen Thien Giap (1998) on the basic characteristics of terminology. The
first characteristic is preciseness, which mentions the concepts in terminology as accurate
concepts of a particular science. The second feature is systematization, which asserts that
the terms cannot exist individually, but they are always present as elements of a particular
term system. The last characteristic of terminology is internationality, which refers to
terminology as special part of vocabulary presenting general scientific concepts for persons
speaking different languages. (Nguyen, 1998: 271-275, self translation)
1.3. Vocabulary
1.3.1. Definition of words
It is widely agreed that words Giúp forming a language, their meanings can be exposed
in real communication and usage, and successful usage of a word depends on intelligent
and positive minds.
We may see vocabulary of a language as the words of that language. Words are
considered as „freestanding items of a language that have meaning.‟ (McCarthy, 1990: 3)
According to Ur (1996: 60), “vocabulary can be defined, roughly, as the words we teach in
the foreign language.”
Jackson and Amvela (2000: 50) consider the word as „an uninterruptible unit of
structure consisting of one or more morphemes and which typically occurs in the structure
of phrases. The morphemes are the ultimate grammatical constituents, the minimal
meaningful units of language‟. They also state that “lexical words are nouns, verbs,19
adjectives and adverbs‟ and „grammatical words are elements like prepositions, articles,
conjunctions, forms indicating number or tenses, etc.‟
In conclusion, the researchers have their particular ways of defining the term „word‟.
Taking the learning and teaching ESP into account, words may be considered as what to
learn and to teach and also what to Giúp the two procedures to happen smoothly. When
dealing with new ESP words, we should learn their meanings, pronunciation, spelling and
uses in real communication on board vessels.
1.3.2. Classification of words
There are a number of ways to divide words into their corresponding groups. We can
consider the following ways of classifying them.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 165-166) mention four types of vocabulary: structural
(because, we, just, those, etc.), general (cargo, vessel, anchor, seaman, habour, etc.), subtechnical (boiler, derrick, pump, piston, etc.) and technical (starboard side, port side,
evacuation, gypsy, etc.).
Another categorization by McCarthy (1990) considers the terms core vocabulary and
procedural vocabulary. Core words may be „the most frequently occurring ones‟ in any
given lexical field. We use procedural vocabulary to state other words, to rephrase them
and explain them and to arrange them in communication. (1990: 49-52)
The first arrangement of words seems simpler and lists the ESP word types of technical
fields. The second one, on the other hand, uses two general concepts to segregate the
vocabulary in usage. For the goals of using the ESP vocabulary in real communication on
board vessels, we should divide the English words into sub-groups: one sub-group based
on the learners‟ needs, the other depending on the usefulness of the vocabulary items and
the last not of these two aspects. (Meara, 2002: 37)
1.3.3. Four strands in learning vocabulary
In his researches into vocabulary teaching and learning, Nation (2003: 133-134) has
broached four strands which applied for all aspects of language in general and for
vocabulary learning in particular. These strands have disclosed the relationship between
learning vocabulary with the four language skills, fluency and language features.
1.3.3.1. Learning from meaning-focused input
This strand includes learning vocabulary from listening and reading. The learners of
English should have known ninety-eight percent of the occurring words, and the rest will
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be conjectured from the contexts and will not prevent „comprehension of the text‟. (Nation,
2003: 133)
1.3.3.2. Deliberate learning
The deliberate learning strand (form-focused instruction, language-focused learning or
language study) comprises „paying deliberate attention to language features such as sounds,
spelling, vocabulary, grammar, or discourse that are presented out of context‟. The clearest
technique is „learning new vocabulary by memorizing their first language translation‟.
(Nation, 2003: 134)
1.3.3.3. Learning from meaning-focused output
This strand consists of learning vocabulary „through speaking and writing where the
learners‟ main attention is on communication messages‟. Using the „productive skills as
sources of vocabulary learning‟ can enhance learning. (Nation, 2003: 134)
1.3.3.3. Fluency development
The fluency development strand of a language course intends to assist learners in
making „the best use of what they already know‟. Fluency may be considered as related to
each of the four language skills with fluency requiring to be developed individually in each
of these skills. (Nation, 2003: 134)
1.4. Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition
For the purpose of the study, learner styles and learner strategies, materials,
pronunciation and spelling, prototypes, contextualization and learner autonomy are
mentioned and discussed as factors affecting vocabulary acquisition.
1.4.1. Learner styles and learner strategies
According to Hedge (2000: 18-19), learning style can be generally defined as „a
characteristic and preferred way of approaching learning and processing information‟. She
also adds that „culture, as learned by the child from family, community, and school, has a
strong influence on learning style‟.
Learning strategies are „techniques used by learners to deal with input, assimilate new
language, store, retrieve, and practise using it‟. (Hedge, 2000: 19) Teachers and textbook
writers „have attempted both to find ways of improving the strategies learners already have
and to raise their awareness about others they might develop‟. (Hedge, 2000: 19) There are
some types of learner strategy to consider such as cognitive, meta-cognitive,
communication and socio-affective strategies.21
Willing (1989: 9-10) thinks cognitive style as the „individuals‟ unique methods of
operation in the mental sphere.‟ These styles also correlate very highly with certain broad,
psychological and personality factors.
„Learning strategies may mean possession of specific study skills or techniques; a
general ability to take the initiative or simply, an enthusiasm for learning.‟ They can be
grouped into two parts. The first one is managing the learning processes, which includes a
number of activities „suggested to Giúp learners become aware of the nature of language
and language-learning and of their own preferences, habits, strengths and weaknesses as
learners‟. The second part is managing information, which encourages „learners to take
more responsibility for planning and evaluating their own learn‟. (Willing, 1989: 1-5)
As a whole, learning styles refer to individual choice of cognition. A number of
elements such as culture, psychology and personality make influence on learning styles.
Selecting the suitable manner for a student requires his or her learning experience and
assessment. Thus, as teachers, we should suggest choosing the most appropriate learning
style for each learner as well as encouraging them to follow their right styles.
Learning strategies refer to techniques in mastering a language item or skills. The
former view point has listed four groups of learning strategy in a brief way. The latter
classifies these into two parts (managing the learning processes and managing information).
This classification seems a detailed and useful guidance for learners and teachers to
improve English language acquisition processes.
1.4.2. Materials
It appears as an agreement that materials affect the learning vocabulary in a supportive
way. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 107-108) define some principles in the actual writing
of the materials as follows:
a. Materials provide a stimulus to learn. Good materials do not teach: they encourage
learners to learn.
b. Materials Giúp to organise the teaching-learning process, by providing a path through
the complex mass of the language to be learnt.
c. Materials embody a view of the nature of language and learning.
d. Materials reflect the nature of the learning task.
e. Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of teacher training,
by introducing teachers to new techniques.
Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi22
f. Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use.
Evans and St. John (1998: 170-172) introduce some reasons for using materials
significant in the ESP contexts. Materials can be a source of language, a learning support,
for motivation and stimulation and for reference. As a source of language, „materials need
to present real language, as it is used, and the full range that learners require‟. As a learning
support, materials need to „involve learners in thinking about and using the language. The
activities need to stimulate cognitive not mechanism processes. The learner also needs a
sense of progression.‟ Materials also need to be challenging yet achievable; to offer new
ideas and information; to encourage fun and creativity. For self-study or reference
purposes, materials need to be complete, well laid out and self explanatory.
It can be concluded that materials assist the learning and teaching procedures.
Materials act as resources for language learning. For ESP vocabulary learning, the
materials should be utilized for acquiring the word meanings and practising the word uses.
1.4.3. Pronunciation and spelling
The difference between pronunciation and spelling among the languages may lead to
difficulties in learning the vocabulary of a particular language as a foreign one. Schmitt
and McCarthy (1997: 142-145) conclude that „there may be a gap between the learner‟s
ability to perceive a word and his/ her ability to pronounce it correctly‟. Correct
pronunciation of a word inquires the correct stress syllable. Also, there may be difficulties
due to „the learner‟s inability to discriminate between some phonemes and subsequent
confusion of words differing precisely in these problematic phonemes‟. (Schmitt and
McCarthy, 1997: 143) In addition to this, „the degree of sound-script correspondence in a
word is a facilitating- or difficulty-inducing factor‟. (Schmitt and McCarthy, 1997:144) An
English written word may give no evidence for its similarity in pronouncing. Long words
are considered as more problematical ones than the short because of the quantity of input.
1.4.4. Prototypes
Hedge (2000: 123) introduces the prototypes as one of the culturally affected factors
influencing acquisition. These prototypes are defined as the foremost example of a
particular conceptual category, the one that springs most easily to mind when a learner
hears a word. For example, we may see or hear the word „vessel‟. If a general cargo vessel
is the kind of vessel the learner first thinks of, it is a prototype, and other vessels are nonprototypes.23
McCarthy (1990: 45) states that „in any given field, some words will seem more salient,
will spring more immediately to mind, and will be perceive as classic example of that
field‟. He also says that „for a variety of reasons, some cultural, some personal it seems
shared widely across speech communities, certain entities are seen as more central
representatives of their class than others.‟
Both of the researchers may share the same ideas that prototypes refer to the first image
or notion of a word occurring in the learner‟s head when he or she hears or reads it.
Learners need to be provided with precise and typical pictures related to the vocabulary
items to form suitable prototypes.
1.4.5. Contextualization
Davies and Pearse (2000: 63) state that „an appropriate context helps learners begin to
understand the use of the item as well as its basic meaning. The item is associated with a
certain type of context or situation.‟
„If learners have to perform certain activities on unfamiliar words in texts, there is a
good chance of retaining the words. The activities comprise guessing meaning from
context and from word to word, verifying meaning by checking in a dictionary, and
analysis of the word form to recognize relationships between the new word and others
already known.‟ (Hedge, 2000: 120)
It is agreed that vocabulary is better acquired not in an isolated form but in a context or
situation. Although a learner has grasped the pronunciation, spelling and meaning of a
word, a text with the appearance of that word will Giúp deepen the word storage in the
learner‟s mind.
1.4.6. Learner autonomy
The first sentiment to the learner autonomy states that „learners can be encouraged to
develop their own personal learning styles for vocabulary, in such areas as memorizing and
retaining new words‟. (McCarthy, 1990: 129-130)
Another view by Hedge (2000) draws out the perceptions of the self-directed learners,
from which some key characteristics of a learner who can take responsibility for learning
are introduced. These are „an ability to define one‟s own objectives; awareness of how to
use language materials effectively; careful organization of time for learning, and active
development of learning strategies‟. (Hedge, 2000: 76-79)
1. Further practice and development of associations can be encouraged by reviewing
the words in conjunction with the pictures but embedding the words in other relevant
language, thus associating the pictures with other objects or experiences.
2. Written records of words could be made by learners on the worksheet – using copies
of the pictures if possible.
(Willing, 1989: 96-97)
3.3.4. Developing the effective ESP vocabulary teaching
It is required that the teachers should prepare more careful and completed lesson plans,
and apply suitable techniques in teaching the word meanings and uses and instructing the
learners to do their exercises. For example, we should make use of visual aids to illustrate
the meanings of ESP words, associate the four language skills during practice time, and use
verbal or antonym explanation. The evaluation of the course book should be made and
appropriate adaptation should be done on this book by choosing necessary information to
teach and add further knowledge units to each lesson.
3.3.5. Encouraging students to form their learning autonomy
To learn ESP effectively, the students should build their own study objectives for all
aspects of English subject, not only the vocabulary. They should stipulate the needs to
learn ESP words, and learn how to manage their learning time so that they can study their
vocabulary lessons in English and other subjects comprehensibly. They should also choose
the right periods of time during a day for their study because there are some durations of
time when each human being is most biologically concentrative. In short, each navigation
student should form their own learning autonomy in order to master their study and success.
It is important that we should pay more attention to the application of the fourth and the
last suggested solutions when considering the conditions in Haiphong Poly-technical
College. The navigation students‟ difficulties in learning ESP vocabulary have partly
resulted from the ineffective teaching.
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