Luận văn tiếng Anh: An analysis of cohesive devices in reading texts in English 11 = Nghiên cứu những phương tiện liên kết văn bản trong các bài đọc trong sách giáo khoa tiếng Anh lớp 11. M.A. Thesis Linguistics: 60 22 15
Nhà xuất bản: ĐHNN
Ngày: 2011
Chủ đề: Phương tiện liên kết
Bài đọc
Sách giáo khoa
Tiếng Anh
Văn bản
Miêu tả: 43 p. + CD-ROM
M.A. Thesis English linguistics -- University of Languages and International Studies. Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 2011
The thesis deals with grammatical and lexical cohesive devices in the English textbook 11. In attempt to investigate the frequency of use of cohesive devices in this textbook, the combination of descriptive, statistical and analytical methods has been adopted. The main research purposes are to find out: (1) grammatical and lexical cohesive devices used in English 11; (2) suggestions for English teachers and learners. The results of the data analysis show that the use of lexical cohesive devices is much larger than grammatical ones and cohesive devices in each reading passage have typical features. 11th grade students and English teachers, for these reasons, should pay attention to cohesion in each passage in process of reading as well as lexical cohesive devices in particular. The results of data analysis also serve as the basic for several practical suggestions and exercises to Giúp teachers and learners in reading. The suggestions are made for each passage in English 11 and the practical exercises are designed with the same topics and the same forms as the reading tasks in English 11. English teachers and students can consult and apply these suggestions and exercises to improve their reading skill
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CANDIDATE’S STATEMENT ………………………………………………………… i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………… ii
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………… iv
ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………………… vii
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………….. viii
PART 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………….. 1
1. Rationale……………………………………………………………………………. 1
2. Aims of the Study…………………………………………………………………... 1
3. Scope of the Study…………………………………………………………………. 2
4. Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………… 2
5. Methods of the Study……………………………………………………………….. 2
6. Design of the Study…………………………………………………………………. 3
PART 2: DEVELOPMENT…………………………………………………………… 4
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………. 4
1. Discourse and Discourse Analysis………………………………………………… 4
1.1. The Concept of Discourse…………………………………………………… 4
1.2. Text and Discourse ………………………………………………………….. 4
1.3. Spoken and Written Discourse……………………………………………….. 5
1.4. Discourse Analysis…………………………………………………………… 6
1.5. Context in Discourse Analysis………………………………………………. 6
1.6. Register and Genre in Discourse Analysis………………………………….. 7
2. Cohesion…………………………………………………………………………… 7
2.1. The Concept of Cohesion……………………………………………………. 7
2.2. Cohesion vs. Coherence……………………………………………………… 8
2.3. Aspects of Cohesion…………………………………………………………. 8
2.3.1. Topical Cohesion………………………………………………….. 8
2.3.2. Logical Cohesion…………………………………………………... 9
2.4. Types of Cohesion…………………………………………………………… 10
2.4.1. Grammatical Cohesion ……………………………………………. 10v
2.4.1.1. Reference………………………………………………... 10
2.4.1.2. Substitution……………………………………………… 11
2.4.1.3. Ellipsis…………………………………………………… 12
2.4.1.4. Conjunction……………………………………………… 12
2.4.2. Lexical cohesion…………………………………………………… 13
2.4.2.1. Reiteration……………………………………………….. 14
2.4.2.2. Collocation………………………………………………. 14
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................... 16
1. An Overview of the English Textbook 11………………………………………… 16
1.1. The Role of the English Textbook in English Language Teaching…………. 16
1.2. Description of the English Textbook 11…………………………………….. 16
2. Research Methodology ……………………………………………………………. 17
2. 1. Materials for Analysis………………………………………………………. 17
2.2. Methods of the Study………………………………………………………... 17
2.3. Data Collection Procedures…………………………………………………. 19
2.4. Data Analysis Procedures…………………………………………………… 20
CHAPTER 3: MAJOR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION………………………… 21
1. Grammatical Cohesion ……………………………………………………………. 21
1.1. Reference ……………………………………………………………………. 21
1.1.1. Anaphoric Reference………………………………………………. 22
1.1.2. Cataphoric Reference……………………………………………… 24
1.1.3. Exophoric Reference………………………………………………. 25
1.2. Substitution………………………………………………………………….. 25
1.3. Ellipsis………………………………………………………………………. 26
1.4. Conjunction………………………………………………………………….. 28
2. Lexical Cohesion…………………………………………………………………… 30
2.1. Reiteration……………………………………………………………………. 30
2.2. Collocation…………………………………………………………………… 33
2.2.1. Lexical Collocation………………………………………………… 33
2.2.2. Grammatical Collocation………………………………………….. 35
3. Summary………………………………………………………………………….. 36
PART 3: CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………………………… 37
1. Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………….. 37
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2. Suggestions………………………………………………………………………… 38
2.1. Suggestions for English Teachers and Learners ……………………………. 38
2.2. Suggested Cohesion Exercises for English Teachers and Learners…………. 39
3. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies………………………………….. 40
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………… 42
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I ……………………………………………………………………. I
APPENDIX II ……………………………………………………………………. VIII
APPENDIX III……………………………………………………………………. XII
APPENDIX IV……………………………………………………………………. XIII
APPENDIX V……………………………………………………………………. XV
APPENDIX VI……………………………………………………………………. XXVI
APPENDIX VII……………………………………………………………………. XLI
SOURCE OF DATA……………………………………………………………………... XLVIvii
ABBREVIATIONS
Adj: Adjective
Adv: Adverb
N: Noun
Prep: Preposition
Quant: Quantifier
V: Verb
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1: The percentage of different types of reference. 20
Table 2: The percentage of different types of reference words for anaphoric ties. 21
Table 3: The percentage of different types of reference words for cataphoric ties. 23
Table 4: The percentage of different types of reference words for exophoric ties. 24
Table 5: The percentage of substitution in English 11. 24
Table 6: The percentage of ellipsis in English 11. 26
Table 7: The percentage of conjunction in English 11. 27
Table 8: The percentage of reiteration in English 11. 30
Table 9: The percentage of lexical collocation in English 11. 33
Table 10: The percentage of grammatical collocation in English 11. 341
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
It is undeniable that English has become an international language and has been widely used
in many countries in the world. In Vietnam, English is regarded as the most important
foreign language and taught as a compulsory subject in most schools throughout the
country. As a result, English has been paid much attention to by both English teachers and
English learners.
English students nowadays have to master all four skills including reading, speaking,
listening and writing. Among these, reading is considered to be very important because it
helps students to get materials such as new words, structures and background knowledge for
other skills. To learn reading well, it is necessary for students to comprehend sufficient
language base, one of which is the cohesive devices in the text. By mastering cohesive
devices, students can even interpret the text with inadequate vocabulary.
Because of all reasons mentioned above, this small study on discourse analysis of cohesive
devices is decided to be carried out with the source of data taken from reading texts in the
English textbook 11. This research is hoped to Giúp 11th grade students in learning reading
in particular and in learning English in general. Moreover, English teachers are also hoped
to pay more attention to cohesive devices in their teaching process on account of its
benefits.
2. Aims of the Study
The study aims:
- to describe and analyze lexical and grammatical cohesive devices in the new
English textbook 11;
- to give some suggestions for teaching reading skill for 11th grade students.
In order to achieve the aims stated, the study is meant to find out the answers to the two
following research questions:
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1. What are the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices used in reading texts in
English textbook 11?
2. How can the findings Giúp English teachers and 11th grade students to improve
reading skill?
3. Scope of the Study
Because of the lack of time and the paper size, it is unable for all the issues of discourse to
be analyzed. The study focuses on the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices in reading
texts in the new English textbook 11.
The new English textbook “Tieng Anh 11”, which refers to “English 11” for convenience, is
published by Educational Publisher firstly in 2006. English 11 contains sixteen units, in
each of which, there are five parts: reading, speaking, listening, writing and language focus.
Reading is put at the beginning of each unit, this proves its importance. In this minor study,
sixteen reading passages in sixteen units are analyzed in terms of grammatical and lexical
cohesive devices. Then, some significant and practical suggestions for 11th grade English
students and teachers are given with the hope to improve the reading learning and teaching
process.
4. Significance of the Study
This study aims at investigating cohesive devices of reading texts in English 11 in the light
of discourse. Hence, it contributes to verifying the correctness and significance related to
linguistic theories in discourse analysis by analyzing discourse in one specific textbook. In
addition, the practical significance of the study is to Giúp 11th grade students and teachers in
reading skill by applying the knowledge of cohesion. Because of the widely application of
English 11 in education system throughout the country, the suggestions from this study are
much more valuable.
5. Methods of the Study
The descriptive, statistical and analytical methods are used in this study. The descriptive
method is used to describe theories related to cohesion and to build up a framework for the
study. Then the statistical method is applied in order to list and number the cohesive devices3
in sixteen reading passages in English 11. Finally, analytical method is restored to analyze
the collected data in terms of grammatical and lexical cohesive devices. Basing on the data
analysis, necessary comments and suggestions are made.
6. Design of the Study
The minor thesis consists of three parts:
- Part 1 is The Introduction which gives rationale, aims, scope, significance and methods of
the study.
- Part 2 is The Development which is divided into three chapters:
+ Chapter 1 is Literature Review.
+ Chapter 2 is Methodology.
+ Chapter 3 is Major Findings and Discussions.
- Part 3 is The Conclusion which states some conclusions of the study and several
suggestions for English teachers and learners and gives recommendations for further
research.
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PART 2: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Discourse and Discourse Analysis
1.1. The Concept of Discourse
Discourse is defined in various ways by different scholars and authors. The classical
definition of discourse as derived from formalist assumptions is that discourse is “language
above the sentence or above the clause” (Stubbs 1983: 1). Schiffrin, D (1994: 20) shares the
same idea; he defines discourse in two ways: a particular unit of language and a particular
focus. In the other words, discourse is above sentences and it focuses on language use.
Crystal (1992: 25) defined discourse more clearly by stating that “discourse is a continuous
stretch of language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as sermon,
argument, joke or narrative.” David Nunan (1993: 5) also adds by writing that “discourse
can be defined as a stretch of language consisting of several sentences which as perceived as
being related not only in terms of the ideas they share but also in terms of the jobs they
perform within the discourse. That is, in terms of their functions.”
Although there are a lot of different definitions of discourse, the definition given by
Halliday and Hasan is regarded as the simplest and the clearest to follow. According to
Halliday and Hasan (1976: 38), discourse is language that is functional. It means that
discourse is “language in use”.
1.2. Text and Discourse
In the view of Brown and Yule (1983: 6), “text” is regarded as a technical term; it refers to
the verbal record of a communicative act. By this mean, the text may be differently
presented in various forms of editions, with different types, on different papers’ size;
however, it is still assumed to be the same text. Halliday and Hasan define a text as a
semantic unit which focuses on meaning instead of on its form. In their view, a text does not
consist of sentences; it is realized by, or encoded in, sentences.
To understand what a text is in the most detailed distinction, it is a good way to compare it
with discourse. Many linguists have defined text and discourse differently. According to5
Widdowson (1979), text has cohesion while discourse has coherence or Cook (1989) see
discourse as a process and text as a product. Crystal (1992: 72) distinguishes text and
discourse by its use, text should be used only for writing but discourse for speech.
On the other hand, many linguists think that text and discourse cannot be made a clear
distinction. In the view of Halliday and Hasan (1976: 23), “text” is employed to refer to
“discourse”; they see “text” as a “semantic unit” characterized by cohesion. They state: “A
text is a passage of discourse which coherent in these two regards: it is coherent with
respect to the context of situation and therefore consistent in register; and it is coherent with
respect to itself, and therefore cohesive”. Sharing the same ideas, Brown & Yule (1983)
support that text is the representation of discourse and the verbal record of a communicative
act. In other words, they all view the notion of text is the representation of discourse, text is
the form of discourse and they have a close relationship.
Although some linguists try to set “text” and “discourse” apart, it is undeniable that the term
“text” and “discourse” refer to the same subject matter. In this study, the term discourse will
be used without difference from text. They both refer to any written record for
communicative functional purposes.
1.3. Spoken and Written Discourse
Spoken and written discourses are distinguished in terms of modes for expressing linguistic
meaning and various functions. Spoken and written discourses represent different modes for
expressing linguistic meaning. In the view of Cook (1989: 50), spoken discourse is
changeable and less planed. It can be produced and processed “on line”. Receivers, by this
way, are open to make an intervention to spoken discourse. Written discourse, on the other
hand, is well-structured and permanent. In writing process, writers are unable to go back
and change or restructure his words.
Spoken and written language can be also distinguished by different functions. According to
Brown and Yule (1983: 13), the function of spoken language is mainly to establish and
maintain human relationship whereas written language has functions to store information
from time and space and to permit words and sentences to be examined out of their original
contexts. In other words, spoken discourse is concerned with interactional use meanwhile
the latter with the transactional use.
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1.4. Discourse Analysis
In the view of Brown and Yule (1983: viii), discourse analysis is understood and defined in
various meanings. They say that the term discourse analysis is concerned with a broad range
of activities including many disciplines from sociolinguistics, philosophical linguistics to
computational linguistics. To be clearer, Brown and Yule (1983: 1) write, “the analysis of
discourse is, necessarily, the analysis of language in use. As such, it cannot be restricted to
the description of linguistic forms independent of the purposes of functions which these
forms are designed to serve human affairs”. It means that analysis of language cannot be out
of the analysis of its purposes and functions. Language has to be understood in its functions
or its uses.
McCarthy, M (1991: 5) shares the same idea with Brown and Yule (1983) by stating that
“discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and
the contexts in which it is used.” It can be referred that language cannot be outside the
context in which it makes sense.
Discourse analysis, in short, is language in context. To understand discourse analysis, it is
essential to understand and interpret a text.
1.5. Context in Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is language in context, hence, context has a very important role in
discourse analysis. There are a numerous of definitions of context. According to Nunan, D
(1993: 7), context is the situation in which discourse is embedded. Context may be
understood as all factors and elements that are non-linguistic and textual which affect
spoken or written communication interaction.
Eggins (1994: 30) sees context in terms of three variables: (a) what is talked about; (b) what
the relationship between the communicators is; and (c) what the role of the language plays.
However, in the view of Malinowski (1923) and Halliday M.A.K (1985: 52) context is
divided as “context of situation” and “context of culture”. Context of situation is the
environment which affects text meaning and it can be seen and discussed as human issues.
On the other hand, context of culture which is different from one county to others is difficult
to realize and understand.7
1.6. Register and Genre in Discourse Analysis
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 41), register is language variety according to use.
Register is featured by “field”, “tenor” and “mode”. Three linguistic consequences can be
seen as “field, mode and tenor”. Field which is related to what language is being used and
talked about, deals with subjects involved in the text such as persons and things. Mode
specifies the medium and channel of communication. Two basic modes are spoken and
written. Tenor is concerned with the role of interaction. Tenor reflects relationship between
participants taking part in communication.
The concept of genre is defined in terms of culture context. Eggins (1994: 32) defines genre
as follow:
Genre, or context of culture, can be seen as more abstract, more general – we can
recognize a particular genre if we are not sure exactly what the situational context
is. Genre, then, can be thought of as the general framework that gives purpose to
interactions of particular types, adaptable to the many specific contexts of situation
that they get used in.
It means that participants can give the framework of the situation basing on his cultural
knowledge. Genre and register, to some extent, share the same features and characteristics.
2. Cohesion
2.1. The Concept of Cohesion
Cohesion is defined in the relation with text. It is concerned with the grammatical and
lexical relationship among different factors in a text. Cohesion is the surface relation. It
connects and hangs words together in order to create a text. According to Halliday and
Hasan (1976, as cited in Hoa, 2000) “A text has texture and this is what distinguishes it
from something that is not a text … the texture is provided by cohesive relation.” It means
that cohesion creates the texture in a text, in other words, creates the text. Hoa (2000: 23)
shares the same idea by stating that “cohesion refers to the formal relationship that causes
text to cohere or stick together.”
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2.2. Cohesion vs. Coherence
Both cohesion and coherence mean sticking together, however, the difference between them
is rather significant. Cohesion is a formal network which connects or links many parts of a
text together by grammar or words. Meanwhile, coherence is the connections which bring
interpretation of linguistic messages. The elements of the messages are seen to be connected
with or without formal linguistic connectors. The reader or the hearer not only look at the
literal meaning of the messages but look at the intended meanings which underlie into the
text. Hoa (2000: 23) and Mc Carthy (1991: 23) both regard coherence as a type of semantic
or rhetorical relationship which underlies the text.
Obviously, cohesion and coherence both make perfectly communicative text by connecting
and hanging the text together. While coherence is the “content cohesion” which is created
by receivers in the act of reading or hearing, cohesion is created by writers or speakers in
the act of writing or speaking. Cohesion, seen on the surface of the text and produced by
grammatical and lexical links, contributes to the coherence of a text.
2.3. Aspects of Cohesion
Cohesion is a means to create coherence in a text and it has to make every sentence, every
phrase and every paragraph contribute to the meaning of the whole piece. In written
discourse, coherence is more difficult to obtain because writers lack the nonverbal clues to
inform their message. Therefore, writers must make their writing more explicit and much
more carefully planned by making use of cohesion which can be understood in terms of
topical and lexical.
2.3.1. Topical Cohesion
Topic is concerned with the description of sentence structure which contains the topic or
theme and the comment or rheme. Theme, which is often put in the front of clause,
conveying known information, serves as the point of the departure of the message. Theme
may be realized by a nominal group, a prepositional phrase, an adverbial group or even a
clause and it may be single or multiple, marked or unmarked.9
While information in theme is common shared knowledge; rheme or the comment which is
the remainder of the message brings new information. Theme and rheme Giúp connect and
stick sentences in a meaningful text to create topical cohesion.
2.3.2. Logical Cohesion
Hoa, N (2000: 28) indicates that “logical cohesive devices are also powerful sentence
connectors. They demonstrate the logical relationships holding between sentences, thus
creating or expressing cohesion.” Cohesive devices can be divided into some types as
follows:
- And: The word “and” is used to connect sentences or clauses cohesively.
- Enumeration: Enumerators are used to indicate a list of what is being said. Common
words are seen such as first, second,… next, to begin with, to start with, for one thing,…for
another thing, for final point…
- Addition: It is expressed by two classes of additive conjuncts: reinforcing conjuncts: also,
too, furthermore, moreover, then, in addition, above all, and what is more, neither, nor,
either… and equative conjuncts: equally, likewise, similarly, in the same way…
- Transition: There are some words or phrases in this type: Now, with reference to, with
respect to, with regard to, incidentally, by the way…
- Summation: Summation as a cohesive device generalizes or sums up what has been
discussed or said earlier. Some conjuncts are used such as then, all in all, in conclusion, to
sum up, in a nutshell…
- Apposition: It refers back to the previous sentences. Some items are seen such as: namely,
in other words, for example, for instance, that is, that is to say, another way of putting it is,
an example could be, etc.
- Result: It indicates the results or consequences of what was mentioned or said in the
preceding sentences. Some items are seen such as: consequently, hence (formal), so
(informal), therefore, thus (formal), as a result
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- Inference: It is used to infer some things stated earlier. Some items are used such as: Else,
otherwise, then, in other words, in that case.
- Reformulation or replacement: It introduces another way of saying the same thing by
means of such conjuncts: Better, rather, in other words, or again…
- Contrast: Contrast is to introduce information which is contradictory to the previous
information. Some items are seen such as: Instead, then, on the contrary, in/by contrast, by
comparison, on the other hand
- Concession: It signals the unexpected, surprising information in the view of known information.
It contains some words such as anyhow (informal), anyway (informal), besides, else, however,
nevertheless, still, through, yet, in any case, at any rate, etc. some adverbials are also employed as
concession for example, actually, admittedly, certainly, really = “this at least is true”
- Comparison: The comparison markers are often found in adjectives and adverbs
including more, as, less, least
2.4. Types of Cohesion
2.4.1. Grammatical Cohesion
2.4.1.1. Reference
In the view of Halliday and Hasan (1976: 32), reference is a semantic relation and “since the
relationship is on the semantic level, the reference item is in no way constrain to match the
grammatical class of the item it refers to”. The two scholars also distinguish situational and
textual reference by contrasting exophora and endophora. Then they conclude that reference
items may be exophoric or endophoric; and if endophoric, they may be anaphoric or
cataphoric. Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to someone or
something that has been previously identified, to avoid repetition. It points listeners or
readers backward to previous entity to understand the text. In contrast, cataphoric items
point listeners or readers forward to the text to identify elements which it refers. It refers to
something introduced in the abstract before it is identified. Exophoric is different from these
two types by describing generics or abstracts without ever being identified. It means that
readers and hearers cannot look at the interpretation of exophoric reference in the text. In11
this case, the interpretation lies outside the text. It lies in the context of situation. However,
both or all participants can understand exophoric reference items regardless of cultural
background.
Reference items in English include three types. The first type is personal reference which is
by means of function in speech and situation through the category of person. It is expressed
by pronouns he, she, it, me, them, etc or determiners such as his, her, your, etc. The second
type is demonstrative reference which is by means of location on a scale of proximity
including that, there, those, then, etc. The last one is comparative reference which is by
means of identity or similarity and is expressed through adjectives and adverbs such as
same, identical, equal, identically, similar, else, different, other, etc. Study the example of
Halliday (1994: 312) as follow:
10. UNIT 10: NATURE IN DANGER
The human race is only one small species in the living world. Many other species exist on
this planet. However, human beings have a great influence on the rest of the world. They are
changing the environment by building cities and villages where forests once stood. They are
affecting the water supply by using water for industry and agriculture. They are changing
weather conditions by cutting down trees in the forests. And they are destroying the air by
adding pollutants to it.
It can be said that human beings are changing the environment in all respects through their
actions and by their habits. This has resulted in two serious consequences. The first is that
many kinds of rare animals are killed. The second is that the environment where these
animals are living is badly destroyed. As a result, the number of rare animals is decreasing so
rapidly that they are in danger of becoming extinct.
In order to make sure that these rare animals do not disappear, efforts have been made to
protect the environments in which they live. Scientists have made lists of endangered species
and suggested ways to save them. Many organizations have been set up and funds have been
raised. Thousands of national parks all over the world have been established to protect
endangered animals. Laws have been introduced to prohibit the killing of endangered animals
and the destructions of the environments where these rare animals are living.
If people’s interference with the environment decreases, more species will survive and
produce offspring. The Earth will be happy planet where human beings, animals and plants
peacefully co-exist.
11. UNIT 11: SOURCES OF ENERGY
At present, most of our energy comes from fossil fuels (oil, cold, and natural gas). However,
such reserves are limited. Because power demand is increasing very rapidly, fossil fuels will
be exhausted within a relatively short time. Therefore, people must develop and use
alternative sources of energy.LIV
One alternative source is nuclear energy. Nuclear energy can provide enough electricity for
the world’s needs for hundreds years, but it can be very dangerous. Another alternative
source of energy is geothermal heat, which comes from deep inside the earth. Scientists use
this heat to make energy. However, this energy is available only in a few places in the world.
The sun, water, and the wind are other alternative sources of energy. The wind turns
windmills and move sailboats. It is a clean source of energy, and there is lots of it.
Unfortunately, if the wind does not blow, there is no wind energy. When water moves from a
higher place to a lower place, it makes energy. This energy is used to create electricity. Water
power gives energy without pollution. However, people have to build dams to use this
energy. And as dams cost a lot of money, so water energy is expensive.
The sun releases large amounts of energy every day. This energy can be changed into
electricity. Many countries use solar energy for their daily life. Solar panels on the roofs of
houses can create enough energy to heat or cool an entire house. Solar energy is not only
plentiful and infinite but also clean and safe.
Although there are some disadvantages, the potential of alternative sources of energy is great.
However, how to make full use of the sources of energy is a question for researchers all over
the world.
12. UNIT 12: THE ASIAN GAMES
The Asian Games, which take place every four years, are held for the purpose of develop
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Nhà xuất bản: ĐHNN
Ngày: 2011
Chủ đề: Phương tiện liên kết
Bài đọc
Sách giáo khoa
Tiếng Anh
Văn bản
Miêu tả: 43 p. + CD-ROM
M.A. Thesis English linguistics -- University of Languages and International Studies. Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 2011
The thesis deals with grammatical and lexical cohesive devices in the English textbook 11. In attempt to investigate the frequency of use of cohesive devices in this textbook, the combination of descriptive, statistical and analytical methods has been adopted. The main research purposes are to find out: (1) grammatical and lexical cohesive devices used in English 11; (2) suggestions for English teachers and learners. The results of the data analysis show that the use of lexical cohesive devices is much larger than grammatical ones and cohesive devices in each reading passage have typical features. 11th grade students and English teachers, for these reasons, should pay attention to cohesion in each passage in process of reading as well as lexical cohesive devices in particular. The results of data analysis also serve as the basic for several practical suggestions and exercises to Giúp teachers and learners in reading. The suggestions are made for each passage in English 11 and the practical exercises are designed with the same topics and the same forms as the reading tasks in English 11. English teachers and students can consult and apply these suggestions and exercises to improve their reading skill
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CANDIDATE’S STATEMENT ………………………………………………………… i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………… ii
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………… iv
ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………………… vii
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………….. viii
PART 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………….. 1
1. Rationale……………………………………………………………………………. 1
2. Aims of the Study…………………………………………………………………... 1
3. Scope of the Study…………………………………………………………………. 2
4. Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………… 2
5. Methods of the Study……………………………………………………………….. 2
6. Design of the Study…………………………………………………………………. 3
PART 2: DEVELOPMENT…………………………………………………………… 4
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………. 4
1. Discourse and Discourse Analysis………………………………………………… 4
1.1. The Concept of Discourse…………………………………………………… 4
1.2. Text and Discourse ………………………………………………………….. 4
1.3. Spoken and Written Discourse……………………………………………….. 5
1.4. Discourse Analysis…………………………………………………………… 6
1.5. Context in Discourse Analysis………………………………………………. 6
1.6. Register and Genre in Discourse Analysis………………………………….. 7
2. Cohesion…………………………………………………………………………… 7
2.1. The Concept of Cohesion……………………………………………………. 7
2.2. Cohesion vs. Coherence……………………………………………………… 8
2.3. Aspects of Cohesion…………………………………………………………. 8
2.3.1. Topical Cohesion………………………………………………….. 8
2.3.2. Logical Cohesion…………………………………………………... 9
2.4. Types of Cohesion…………………………………………………………… 10
2.4.1. Grammatical Cohesion ……………………………………………. 10v
2.4.1.1. Reference………………………………………………... 10
2.4.1.2. Substitution……………………………………………… 11
2.4.1.3. Ellipsis…………………………………………………… 12
2.4.1.4. Conjunction……………………………………………… 12
2.4.2. Lexical cohesion…………………………………………………… 13
2.4.2.1. Reiteration……………………………………………….. 14
2.4.2.2. Collocation………………………………………………. 14
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................... 16
1. An Overview of the English Textbook 11………………………………………… 16
1.1. The Role of the English Textbook in English Language Teaching…………. 16
1.2. Description of the English Textbook 11…………………………………….. 16
2. Research Methodology ……………………………………………………………. 17
2. 1. Materials for Analysis………………………………………………………. 17
2.2. Methods of the Study………………………………………………………... 17
2.3. Data Collection Procedures…………………………………………………. 19
2.4. Data Analysis Procedures…………………………………………………… 20
CHAPTER 3: MAJOR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION………………………… 21
1. Grammatical Cohesion ……………………………………………………………. 21
1.1. Reference ……………………………………………………………………. 21
1.1.1. Anaphoric Reference………………………………………………. 22
1.1.2. Cataphoric Reference……………………………………………… 24
1.1.3. Exophoric Reference………………………………………………. 25
1.2. Substitution………………………………………………………………….. 25
1.3. Ellipsis………………………………………………………………………. 26
1.4. Conjunction………………………………………………………………….. 28
2. Lexical Cohesion…………………………………………………………………… 30
2.1. Reiteration……………………………………………………………………. 30
2.2. Collocation…………………………………………………………………… 33
2.2.1. Lexical Collocation………………………………………………… 33
2.2.2. Grammatical Collocation………………………………………….. 35
3. Summary………………………………………………………………………….. 36
PART 3: CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………………………… 37
1. Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………….. 37
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2. Suggestions………………………………………………………………………… 38
2.1. Suggestions for English Teachers and Learners ……………………………. 38
2.2. Suggested Cohesion Exercises for English Teachers and Learners…………. 39
3. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies………………………………….. 40
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………… 42
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I ……………………………………………………………………. I
APPENDIX II ……………………………………………………………………. VIII
APPENDIX III……………………………………………………………………. XII
APPENDIX IV……………………………………………………………………. XIII
APPENDIX V……………………………………………………………………. XV
APPENDIX VI……………………………………………………………………. XXVI
APPENDIX VII……………………………………………………………………. XLI
SOURCE OF DATA……………………………………………………………………... XLVIvii
ABBREVIATIONS
Adj: Adjective
Adv: Adverb
N: Noun
Prep: Preposition
Quant: Quantifier
V: Verb
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1: The percentage of different types of reference. 20
Table 2: The percentage of different types of reference words for anaphoric ties. 21
Table 3: The percentage of different types of reference words for cataphoric ties. 23
Table 4: The percentage of different types of reference words for exophoric ties. 24
Table 5: The percentage of substitution in English 11. 24
Table 6: The percentage of ellipsis in English 11. 26
Table 7: The percentage of conjunction in English 11. 27
Table 8: The percentage of reiteration in English 11. 30
Table 9: The percentage of lexical collocation in English 11. 33
Table 10: The percentage of grammatical collocation in English 11. 341
PART 1: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
It is undeniable that English has become an international language and has been widely used
in many countries in the world. In Vietnam, English is regarded as the most important
foreign language and taught as a compulsory subject in most schools throughout the
country. As a result, English has been paid much attention to by both English teachers and
English learners.
English students nowadays have to master all four skills including reading, speaking,
listening and writing. Among these, reading is considered to be very important because it
helps students to get materials such as new words, structures and background knowledge for
other skills. To learn reading well, it is necessary for students to comprehend sufficient
language base, one of which is the cohesive devices in the text. By mastering cohesive
devices, students can even interpret the text with inadequate vocabulary.
Because of all reasons mentioned above, this small study on discourse analysis of cohesive
devices is decided to be carried out with the source of data taken from reading texts in the
English textbook 11. This research is hoped to Giúp 11th grade students in learning reading
in particular and in learning English in general. Moreover, English teachers are also hoped
to pay more attention to cohesive devices in their teaching process on account of its
benefits.
2. Aims of the Study
The study aims:
- to describe and analyze lexical and grammatical cohesive devices in the new
English textbook 11;
- to give some suggestions for teaching reading skill for 11th grade students.
In order to achieve the aims stated, the study is meant to find out the answers to the two
following research questions:
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1. What are the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices used in reading texts in
English textbook 11?
2. How can the findings Giúp English teachers and 11th grade students to improve
reading skill?
3. Scope of the Study
Because of the lack of time and the paper size, it is unable for all the issues of discourse to
be analyzed. The study focuses on the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices in reading
texts in the new English textbook 11.
The new English textbook “Tieng Anh 11”, which refers to “English 11” for convenience, is
published by Educational Publisher firstly in 2006. English 11 contains sixteen units, in
each of which, there are five parts: reading, speaking, listening, writing and language focus.
Reading is put at the beginning of each unit, this proves its importance. In this minor study,
sixteen reading passages in sixteen units are analyzed in terms of grammatical and lexical
cohesive devices. Then, some significant and practical suggestions for 11th grade English
students and teachers are given with the hope to improve the reading learning and teaching
process.
4. Significance of the Study
This study aims at investigating cohesive devices of reading texts in English 11 in the light
of discourse. Hence, it contributes to verifying the correctness and significance related to
linguistic theories in discourse analysis by analyzing discourse in one specific textbook. In
addition, the practical significance of the study is to Giúp 11th grade students and teachers in
reading skill by applying the knowledge of cohesion. Because of the widely application of
English 11 in education system throughout the country, the suggestions from this study are
much more valuable.
5. Methods of the Study
The descriptive, statistical and analytical methods are used in this study. The descriptive
method is used to describe theories related to cohesion and to build up a framework for the
study. Then the statistical method is applied in order to list and number the cohesive devices3
in sixteen reading passages in English 11. Finally, analytical method is restored to analyze
the collected data in terms of grammatical and lexical cohesive devices. Basing on the data
analysis, necessary comments and suggestions are made.
6. Design of the Study
The minor thesis consists of three parts:
- Part 1 is The Introduction which gives rationale, aims, scope, significance and methods of
the study.
- Part 2 is The Development which is divided into three chapters:
+ Chapter 1 is Literature Review.
+ Chapter 2 is Methodology.
+ Chapter 3 is Major Findings and Discussions.
- Part 3 is The Conclusion which states some conclusions of the study and several
suggestions for English teachers and learners and gives recommendations for further
research.
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PART 2: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Discourse and Discourse Analysis
1.1. The Concept of Discourse
Discourse is defined in various ways by different scholars and authors. The classical
definition of discourse as derived from formalist assumptions is that discourse is “language
above the sentence or above the clause” (Stubbs 1983: 1). Schiffrin, D (1994: 20) shares the
same idea; he defines discourse in two ways: a particular unit of language and a particular
focus. In the other words, discourse is above sentences and it focuses on language use.
Crystal (1992: 25) defined discourse more clearly by stating that “discourse is a continuous
stretch of language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as sermon,
argument, joke or narrative.” David Nunan (1993: 5) also adds by writing that “discourse
can be defined as a stretch of language consisting of several sentences which as perceived as
being related not only in terms of the ideas they share but also in terms of the jobs they
perform within the discourse. That is, in terms of their functions.”
Although there are a lot of different definitions of discourse, the definition given by
Halliday and Hasan is regarded as the simplest and the clearest to follow. According to
Halliday and Hasan (1976: 38), discourse is language that is functional. It means that
discourse is “language in use”.
1.2. Text and Discourse
In the view of Brown and Yule (1983: 6), “text” is regarded as a technical term; it refers to
the verbal record of a communicative act. By this mean, the text may be differently
presented in various forms of editions, with different types, on different papers’ size;
however, it is still assumed to be the same text. Halliday and Hasan define a text as a
semantic unit which focuses on meaning instead of on its form. In their view, a text does not
consist of sentences; it is realized by, or encoded in, sentences.
To understand what a text is in the most detailed distinction, it is a good way to compare it
with discourse. Many linguists have defined text and discourse differently. According to5
Widdowson (1979), text has cohesion while discourse has coherence or Cook (1989) see
discourse as a process and text as a product. Crystal (1992: 72) distinguishes text and
discourse by its use, text should be used only for writing but discourse for speech.
On the other hand, many linguists think that text and discourse cannot be made a clear
distinction. In the view of Halliday and Hasan (1976: 23), “text” is employed to refer to
“discourse”; they see “text” as a “semantic unit” characterized by cohesion. They state: “A
text is a passage of discourse which coherent in these two regards: it is coherent with
respect to the context of situation and therefore consistent in register; and it is coherent with
respect to itself, and therefore cohesive”. Sharing the same ideas, Brown & Yule (1983)
support that text is the representation of discourse and the verbal record of a communicative
act. In other words, they all view the notion of text is the representation of discourse, text is
the form of discourse and they have a close relationship.
Although some linguists try to set “text” and “discourse” apart, it is undeniable that the term
“text” and “discourse” refer to the same subject matter. In this study, the term discourse will
be used without difference from text. They both refer to any written record for
communicative functional purposes.
1.3. Spoken and Written Discourse
Spoken and written discourses are distinguished in terms of modes for expressing linguistic
meaning and various functions. Spoken and written discourses represent different modes for
expressing linguistic meaning. In the view of Cook (1989: 50), spoken discourse is
changeable and less planed. It can be produced and processed “on line”. Receivers, by this
way, are open to make an intervention to spoken discourse. Written discourse, on the other
hand, is well-structured and permanent. In writing process, writers are unable to go back
and change or restructure his words.
Spoken and written language can be also distinguished by different functions. According to
Brown and Yule (1983: 13), the function of spoken language is mainly to establish and
maintain human relationship whereas written language has functions to store information
from time and space and to permit words and sentences to be examined out of their original
contexts. In other words, spoken discourse is concerned with interactional use meanwhile
the latter with the transactional use.
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1.4. Discourse Analysis
In the view of Brown and Yule (1983: viii), discourse analysis is understood and defined in
various meanings. They say that the term discourse analysis is concerned with a broad range
of activities including many disciplines from sociolinguistics, philosophical linguistics to
computational linguistics. To be clearer, Brown and Yule (1983: 1) write, “the analysis of
discourse is, necessarily, the analysis of language in use. As such, it cannot be restricted to
the description of linguistic forms independent of the purposes of functions which these
forms are designed to serve human affairs”. It means that analysis of language cannot be out
of the analysis of its purposes and functions. Language has to be understood in its functions
or its uses.
McCarthy, M (1991: 5) shares the same idea with Brown and Yule (1983) by stating that
“discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and
the contexts in which it is used.” It can be referred that language cannot be outside the
context in which it makes sense.
Discourse analysis, in short, is language in context. To understand discourse analysis, it is
essential to understand and interpret a text.
1.5. Context in Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is language in context, hence, context has a very important role in
discourse analysis. There are a numerous of definitions of context. According to Nunan, D
(1993: 7), context is the situation in which discourse is embedded. Context may be
understood as all factors and elements that are non-linguistic and textual which affect
spoken or written communication interaction.
Eggins (1994: 30) sees context in terms of three variables: (a) what is talked about; (b) what
the relationship between the communicators is; and (c) what the role of the language plays.
However, in the view of Malinowski (1923) and Halliday M.A.K (1985: 52) context is
divided as “context of situation” and “context of culture”. Context of situation is the
environment which affects text meaning and it can be seen and discussed as human issues.
On the other hand, context of culture which is different from one county to others is difficult
to realize and understand.7
1.6. Register and Genre in Discourse Analysis
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 41), register is language variety according to use.
Register is featured by “field”, “tenor” and “mode”. Three linguistic consequences can be
seen as “field, mode and tenor”. Field which is related to what language is being used and
talked about, deals with subjects involved in the text such as persons and things. Mode
specifies the medium and channel of communication. Two basic modes are spoken and
written. Tenor is concerned with the role of interaction. Tenor reflects relationship between
participants taking part in communication.
The concept of genre is defined in terms of culture context. Eggins (1994: 32) defines genre
as follow:
Genre, or context of culture, can be seen as more abstract, more general – we can
recognize a particular genre if we are not sure exactly what the situational context
is. Genre, then, can be thought of as the general framework that gives purpose to
interactions of particular types, adaptable to the many specific contexts of situation
that they get used in.
It means that participants can give the framework of the situation basing on his cultural
knowledge. Genre and register, to some extent, share the same features and characteristics.
2. Cohesion
2.1. The Concept of Cohesion
Cohesion is defined in the relation with text. It is concerned with the grammatical and
lexical relationship among different factors in a text. Cohesion is the surface relation. It
connects and hangs words together in order to create a text. According to Halliday and
Hasan (1976, as cited in Hoa, 2000) “A text has texture and this is what distinguishes it
from something that is not a text … the texture is provided by cohesive relation.” It means
that cohesion creates the texture in a text, in other words, creates the text. Hoa (2000: 23)
shares the same idea by stating that “cohesion refers to the formal relationship that causes
text to cohere or stick together.”
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2.2. Cohesion vs. Coherence
Both cohesion and coherence mean sticking together, however, the difference between them
is rather significant. Cohesion is a formal network which connects or links many parts of a
text together by grammar or words. Meanwhile, coherence is the connections which bring
interpretation of linguistic messages. The elements of the messages are seen to be connected
with or without formal linguistic connectors. The reader or the hearer not only look at the
literal meaning of the messages but look at the intended meanings which underlie into the
text. Hoa (2000: 23) and Mc Carthy (1991: 23) both regard coherence as a type of semantic
or rhetorical relationship which underlies the text.
Obviously, cohesion and coherence both make perfectly communicative text by connecting
and hanging the text together. While coherence is the “content cohesion” which is created
by receivers in the act of reading or hearing, cohesion is created by writers or speakers in
the act of writing or speaking. Cohesion, seen on the surface of the text and produced by
grammatical and lexical links, contributes to the coherence of a text.
2.3. Aspects of Cohesion
Cohesion is a means to create coherence in a text and it has to make every sentence, every
phrase and every paragraph contribute to the meaning of the whole piece. In written
discourse, coherence is more difficult to obtain because writers lack the nonverbal clues to
inform their message. Therefore, writers must make their writing more explicit and much
more carefully planned by making use of cohesion which can be understood in terms of
topical and lexical.
2.3.1. Topical Cohesion
Topic is concerned with the description of sentence structure which contains the topic or
theme and the comment or rheme. Theme, which is often put in the front of clause,
conveying known information, serves as the point of the departure of the message. Theme
may be realized by a nominal group, a prepositional phrase, an adverbial group or even a
clause and it may be single or multiple, marked or unmarked.9
While information in theme is common shared knowledge; rheme or the comment which is
the remainder of the message brings new information. Theme and rheme Giúp connect and
stick sentences in a meaningful text to create topical cohesion.
2.3.2. Logical Cohesion
Hoa, N (2000: 28) indicates that “logical cohesive devices are also powerful sentence
connectors. They demonstrate the logical relationships holding between sentences, thus
creating or expressing cohesion.” Cohesive devices can be divided into some types as
follows:
- And: The word “and” is used to connect sentences or clauses cohesively.
- Enumeration: Enumerators are used to indicate a list of what is being said. Common
words are seen such as first, second,… next, to begin with, to start with, for one thing,…for
another thing, for final point…
- Addition: It is expressed by two classes of additive conjuncts: reinforcing conjuncts: also,
too, furthermore, moreover, then, in addition, above all, and what is more, neither, nor,
either… and equative conjuncts: equally, likewise, similarly, in the same way…
- Transition: There are some words or phrases in this type: Now, with reference to, with
respect to, with regard to, incidentally, by the way…
- Summation: Summation as a cohesive device generalizes or sums up what has been
discussed or said earlier. Some conjuncts are used such as then, all in all, in conclusion, to
sum up, in a nutshell…
- Apposition: It refers back to the previous sentences. Some items are seen such as: namely,
in other words, for example, for instance, that is, that is to say, another way of putting it is,
an example could be, etc.
- Result: It indicates the results or consequences of what was mentioned or said in the
preceding sentences. Some items are seen such as: consequently, hence (formal), so
(informal), therefore, thus (formal), as a result
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- Inference: It is used to infer some things stated earlier. Some items are used such as: Else,
otherwise, then, in other words, in that case.
- Reformulation or replacement: It introduces another way of saying the same thing by
means of such conjuncts: Better, rather, in other words, or again…
- Contrast: Contrast is to introduce information which is contradictory to the previous
information. Some items are seen such as: Instead, then, on the contrary, in/by contrast, by
comparison, on the other hand
- Concession: It signals the unexpected, surprising information in the view of known information.
It contains some words such as anyhow (informal), anyway (informal), besides, else, however,
nevertheless, still, through, yet, in any case, at any rate, etc. some adverbials are also employed as
concession for example, actually, admittedly, certainly, really = “this at least is true”
- Comparison: The comparison markers are often found in adjectives and adverbs
including more, as, less, least
2.4. Types of Cohesion
2.4.1. Grammatical Cohesion
2.4.1.1. Reference
In the view of Halliday and Hasan (1976: 32), reference is a semantic relation and “since the
relationship is on the semantic level, the reference item is in no way constrain to match the
grammatical class of the item it refers to”. The two scholars also distinguish situational and
textual reference by contrasting exophora and endophora. Then they conclude that reference
items may be exophoric or endophoric; and if endophoric, they may be anaphoric or
cataphoric. Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to someone or
something that has been previously identified, to avoid repetition. It points listeners or
readers backward to previous entity to understand the text. In contrast, cataphoric items
point listeners or readers forward to the text to identify elements which it refers. It refers to
something introduced in the abstract before it is identified. Exophoric is different from these
two types by describing generics or abstracts without ever being identified. It means that
readers and hearers cannot look at the interpretation of exophoric reference in the text. In11
this case, the interpretation lies outside the text. It lies in the context of situation. However,
both or all participants can understand exophoric reference items regardless of cultural
background.
Reference items in English include three types. The first type is personal reference which is
by means of function in speech and situation through the category of person. It is expressed
by pronouns he, she, it, me, them, etc or determiners such as his, her, your, etc. The second
type is demonstrative reference which is by means of location on a scale of proximity
including that, there, those, then, etc. The last one is comparative reference which is by
means of identity or similarity and is expressed through adjectives and adverbs such as
same, identical, equal, identically, similar, else, different, other, etc. Study the example of
Halliday (1994: 312) as follow:
10. UNIT 10: NATURE IN DANGER
The human race is only one small species in the living world. Many other species exist on
this planet. However, human beings have a great influence on the rest of the world. They are
changing the environment by building cities and villages where forests once stood. They are
affecting the water supply by using water for industry and agriculture. They are changing
weather conditions by cutting down trees in the forests. And they are destroying the air by
adding pollutants to it.
It can be said that human beings are changing the environment in all respects through their
actions and by their habits. This has resulted in two serious consequences. The first is that
many kinds of rare animals are killed. The second is that the environment where these
animals are living is badly destroyed. As a result, the number of rare animals is decreasing so
rapidly that they are in danger of becoming extinct.
In order to make sure that these rare animals do not disappear, efforts have been made to
protect the environments in which they live. Scientists have made lists of endangered species
and suggested ways to save them. Many organizations have been set up and funds have been
raised. Thousands of national parks all over the world have been established to protect
endangered animals. Laws have been introduced to prohibit the killing of endangered animals
and the destructions of the environments where these rare animals are living.
If people’s interference with the environment decreases, more species will survive and
produce offspring. The Earth will be happy planet where human beings, animals and plants
peacefully co-exist.
11. UNIT 11: SOURCES OF ENERGY
At present, most of our energy comes from fossil fuels (oil, cold, and natural gas). However,
such reserves are limited. Because power demand is increasing very rapidly, fossil fuels will
be exhausted within a relatively short time. Therefore, people must develop and use
alternative sources of energy.LIV
One alternative source is nuclear energy. Nuclear energy can provide enough electricity for
the world’s needs for hundreds years, but it can be very dangerous. Another alternative
source of energy is geothermal heat, which comes from deep inside the earth. Scientists use
this heat to make energy. However, this energy is available only in a few places in the world.
The sun, water, and the wind are other alternative sources of energy. The wind turns
windmills and move sailboats. It is a clean source of energy, and there is lots of it.
Unfortunately, if the wind does not blow, there is no wind energy. When water moves from a
higher place to a lower place, it makes energy. This energy is used to create electricity. Water
power gives energy without pollution. However, people have to build dams to use this
energy. And as dams cost a lot of money, so water energy is expensive.
The sun releases large amounts of energy every day. This energy can be changed into
electricity. Many countries use solar energy for their daily life. Solar panels on the roofs of
houses can create enough energy to heat or cool an entire house. Solar energy is not only
plentiful and infinite but also clean and safe.
Although there are some disadvantages, the potential of alternative sources of energy is great.
However, how to make full use of the sources of energy is a question for researchers all over
the world.
12. UNIT 12: THE ASIAN GAMES
The Asian Games, which take place every four years, are held for the purpose of develop
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