LINK TẢI LUẬN VĂN MIỄN PHÍ CHO AE KET-NOI
Pháp luật chống định giá lạm dụng của EU, Hoa Kỳ, Việt Nam – So sánh và kinh nghiệm áp dụng cho Việt Nam
Table of Contents
PREFACE ............................................................................................. 5 List of Abbreviations..............................................................................7
1.
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 9
1.1. Background........................................................................................9
1.1.1. Relationship of competition and monopoly ...............................................9
1.1.2. Pricing in competition and monopoly......................................................11
1.1.3. Monopoly control laws in US, EU and Vietnam .....................................11
1.2. Purposes: .......................................................................................... 25
1.3. Definition and delimitation............................................................. 26
1.4. Methods ............................................................................................ 29
1.5. Value of the research:......................................................................31
1.6. Outline..............................................................................................31
2.
AND US LAW .......................................................................................... 33
REGULATIONS AGAINST ABUSIVE PRICING UNDER EU
2.1. Basic rules and concepts on abusive pricing in EU and US......... 33 2.1.1. Basic rules ...............................................................................................33
2.1.1.1. EU Competition Law and US Anti-Trust Law are directed against abusive conduct, which includes abusive pricing ..................................................33
2.1.1.2. Laws against abusive pricing in the EU and the US protect Competition, not Competitors................................................................................45 2.1.2. Concept of Dominant position, Market power and Monopoly power .....48 2.1.2.1. General approach: ..........................................................................48 2.1.2.2. Identification: .................................................................................51 2.1.3. The Relevant Market concept..................................................................57 2.1.3.1. The relevant product market: .........................................................59 2.1.3.2. The relevant geographic market:....................................................62
2.2. Specific forms of abusive pricing ................................................... 64 2.2.1. Excessive pricing:....................................................................................64
2.2.1.1. 2.2.1.2. 2.2.1.3.
Excessive pricing on the selling side..............................................65 Excessive pricing on the buying side .............................................73 Remarks .........................................................................................75
2.2.2. Predatory pricing .....................................................................................76 2.2.2.1. EU test of predatory pricing...........................................................83 2.2.3. Price Squeeze...........................................................................................86 2.2.3.1. Price squeeze in the US..................................................................88 2.2.3.2. Price squeeze in the EU..................................................................92 2.2.4. Price Discrimination ................................................................................98 2.2.4.1. Price discrimination in the US .......................................................99 2.2.4.2. Price discrimination in the EU .....................................................102 2.2.5. Discount or rebate schemes ...................................................................104
3. US
2.3.3. Criminalization and Incarceration: ........................................................134 2.3.4. Remarks.................................................................................................134
ABUSIVE PRICING IN VIETNAM COMPARED WITH EU AND .................................................................................................... 137
3.1. Background, basic rules and concepts......................................... 138 3.1.1. Gradual development of legislation and enforcement capacity .............138 3.1.1.1. Development of Vietnamese laws ................................................138 3.1.1.2. Competent Authorities for regulating abuses of dominance ........146 3.1.2. Recent practices related to of abuse of dominance ................................150
2.2.5.1. Bundled discounts ........................................................................105
2.2.5.2. Single-product royalty discounts..................................................110 2.2.6. Remarks.................................................................................................116
2.3. Remedies to abusive pricing in EU and US laws ........................ 117 2.3.1. Conduct and Structural Remedies..........................................................118
2.3.1.1. 2.3.1.2. 2.3.1.3.
Termination of infringement ........................................................119 Behavioural remedies...................................................................120 Structural Remedies .....................................................................121
2.3.2. Monetary Remedies...............................................................................125
2.3.2.1. 2.3.2.2. 2.3.2.3.
Fines and penalties .......................................................................126 Compensation...............................................................................128 Legal Fees ....................................................................................133
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3.1.2.1. 3.1.2.2. 3.1.2.3. 3.1.2.4. 3.1.2.5.
Vinapco case ................................................................................151 Megastar case ...............................................................................153 K+ issue .......................................................................................154 “Electric pole war”.......................................................................157 Medicine and milk prices .............................................................161
3.1.3. Basic rules .............................................................................................165 3.1.3.1. Abusive conducts including abusive pricing................................165 3.1.3.2. Vietnamese Competition Law protects competition and competitors
170
3.1.4. Concepts ................................................................................................171
3.1.4.1. Dominance and monopoly position..............................................171 3.1.4.2. Relevant market: ..........................................................................175
3.2. Specific forms of abusive pricing in Vietnamese laws................177 3.2.1. Excessive pricing:..................................................................................178
3.2.1.1. 3.2.1.2. 3.2.1.3.
Excessive pricing on the selling side............................................178 Excessive pricing on the buying side ...........................................180 Fixing a minimum re-selling price ...............................................182
3.2.2. Predatory Pricing: ..................................................................................184
3.2.3. Price Discrimination: .............................................................................186
3.2.4. Foreclosing competitors ........................................................................187
3.2.5. Remarks.................................................................................................189
3.3. Remedies to Abusive Pricing ........................................................ 190 3.3.1. Conduct and Structural Remedies..........................................................191 3.3.1.1. Conduct remedies.........................................................................191 3.3.1.2. Structural remedies.......................................................................192 3.3.2. Monetary remedies ................................................................................192 3.3.2.1. Fine ..............................................................................................192 3.3.2.2. Compensation...............................................................................193 3.3.3. Remarks.................................................................................................194
4. SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING VIETNAMESE REGULATIONS ON ABUSIVE PRICING AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 195
4.1. Suggestions for improving the presentation and communication of competition matters....................................................................................196 4.1.1. Publication of VCAD and VCC decisions.............................................196
4.1.2. Categorize abuses of monopoly position along with abuse of a dominant
position
4.1.3. Determination of a dominant position ...................................................198
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5.
4.1.3.1. Single firm dominance .................................................................198
4.1.3.2. Collective dominance...................................................................199 4.1.4. Determination of a relevant market .......................................................199
4.2. Suggestions on regulations on abusive pricing ........................... 200
4.2.1. Excessive pricing...................................................................................200
4.2.2. Predatory pricing ...................................................................................202
4.2.3. Price discrimination ...............................................................................203
4.2.4. Market foreclosure.................................................................................203
4.2.5. Price squeeze .........................................................................................203
4.2.6. Discount and rebate schemes.................................................................204
4.3. Suggestions on remedies for abusive pricing .............................. 205
4.4. Conclusion...................................................................................... 206
Annexes ...................................................................................... 208 1 - Extract of the VLC.........................................................................................208 2 - Extract of the VLC – With suggested amendments .......................................212 3 - Extract of Decree 116/2005 ...........................................................................216 4 - Extract of Decree 116/2005 – with suggested amendments...........................222
...............................................................................................................197
Table of Cases.................................................................................... 228 Official Documents............................................................................ 233 List of websites .................................................................................. 235 BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................. 236
GIỚI THIỆU .......................................................................... 9
1.1. Bối cảnh................................................................................................9
1.1.1. Mối quan hệ giữa cạnh tranh và độc quyền ...............................................9
1.1.2. Định giá trong cạnh tranh và độc quyền......................................................11
1.1.3. Luật kiểm soát độc quyền tại Hoa Kỳ, EU và Việt Nam .....................................11
1.2. Mục đích: .......................................................................................... 25
1.3. Định nghĩa và phân định................................................................. 26
1.4. Phương pháp ............................................................................................... 29
1.5. Giá trị nghiên cứu:.......................................................................31
1.6. Phác thảo.................................................................................................31
2.
VÀ LUẬT CỦA HOA KỲ .......................................................................................... 33
CÁC QUY ĐỊNH CHỐNG LẠM DỤNG GIÁ THEO EU
2.1. Các quy tắc và khái niệm cơ bản về hành vi lạm dụng giá tại EU và Hoa Kỳ......... 33 2.1.1. Các quy tắc cơ bản ...............................................................................................33
2.1.1.1. Luật Cạnh tranh của EU và Luật Chống độc quyền của Hoa Kỳ hướng đến chống lại hành vi lạm dụng, bao gồm cả việc định giá lạm dụng ..................................................33
2.1.1.2. Luật chống định giá lạm dụng ở EU và Hoa Kỳ bảo vệ Cạnh tranh, không phải Đối thủ cạnh tranh.................................................................45 2.1.2. Khái niệm về Vị trí thống lĩnh, Quyền lực thị trường và Quyền lực độc quyền .....48 2.1.2.1. Cách tiếp cận chung: ..........................................................................48 2.1.2.2. Nhận dạng: ................................................................................51 2.1.3. Khái niệm Thị trường có liên quan.................................................................57 2.1.3.1. Thị trường sản phẩm có liên quan: .........................................................59 2.1.3.2. Thị trường địa lý có liên quan:....................................................62
2.2. Các hình thức định giá lạm công cụ thể ................................................... 64 2.2.1. Định giá quá mức:....................................................................................64
2.2.1.1. 2.2.1.2. 2.2.1.3.
Định giá quá mức ở phía bán.................................................65 Định giá quá mức ở phía mua.................................................73 Nhận xét...........................................................................................75
2.2.2. Định giá phá hoại.................................................................................76 2.2.2.1. Kiểm tra định giá phá hoại của EU...........................................................83 2.2.3. Bóp giá.................................................................................................86 2.2.3.1. Bóp giá ở Hoa Kỳ.................................................................88 2.2.3.2. Bóp giá ở EU.................................................................92 2.2.4. Phân biệt giá.................................................................................98 2.2.4.1. Phân biệt giá ở Hoa Kỳ.................................................................99 2.2.4.2. Phân biệt giá tại EU .....................................................102 2.2.5. Các chương trình chiết khấu hay hoàn tiền ....................................................................104
3. Hoa Kỳ
2.3.3. Hình sự hóa và bỏ tù: ................................................................134 2.3.4. Nhận xét.................................................................................................134
GIÁ LẠM DỤNG Ở VIỆT NAM SO VỚI EU VÀ .................................................................................................... 137
3.1. Bối cảnh, các quy tắc và khái niệm cơ bản................................................. 138 3.1.1. Phát triển dần dần pháp luật và năng lực thực thi ...............138 3.1.1.1. Phát triển luật pháp Việt Nam ................................................138 3.1.1.2. Các cơ quan có thẩm quyền quản lý tình trạng lạm dụng vị trí thống lĩnh ........146 3.1.2. Các hoạt động gần đây liên quan đến tình trạng lạm dụng vị trí thống lĩnh ................................150
2.2.5.1. Chiết khấu trọn gói ................................................................105
2.2.5.2. Chiết khấu tiền bản quyền cho một sản phẩm duy nhất................................................110 2.2.6. Ghi chú................................................................................................116
2.3. Biện pháp khắc phục tình trạng định giá lạm dụng trong luật pháp EU và Hoa Kỳ.................................... 117 2.3.1. Biện pháp khắc phục về hành vi và cấu trúc....
PREFACE
This dissertation is the visible result of my Ph.D research within the framework of the joint doctoral program between Lund University Faculty of Law and Ho Chi Minh City University of Law, supported by SIDA’s “Strengthening legal education in Vietnam” project. The research focuses on laws against abuse of a dominant position in the EU, the US and Vietnam utilizing a comparative law approach.
This dissertation would not have been accomplished without the Giúp and contribution of several individuals, to whom I would like to express my deepest appreciation.
First, it was my great honour to be supervised by Professor Hans Henrik Lidgard and Associate Professor Le Thi Bich Tho. Professor Lidgard has given me invaluable guidance, advice and encouragement from the very first to the final steps of the research. He spent a great deal of his precious time reading and commenting my writing, and discussing the issues raised in my drafts. Associate Professor Le Thi Bich Tho provided me not only with warm encouragement throughout the whole process, but also with insightful comments, especially with regard to the approach to Vietnamese law in my dissertation. I would like to express my deep gratitude to Prof. Lidgard and Asst. Prof. Le Thi Bich Tho for being my teachers and supervisors throughout both my masters and doctoral degree programs. I am indebted to them for much of the professional legal content of my dissertation. Any remaining errors are entirely my own.
Second, I would like to send my special thanks to Mr. Robert Schwartz, who helped me to improve my writing in the English language. Moreover, he provided me with many practical comments and relevant and valuable information. Without his help, my dissertation would not reach the standard for international academic writing.
Third, I would like to thank Dr. Nguyen Thanh Tu, Professor Katarina Olsson, and all the other professors, doctors who were opponents or members of examining boards of annual prolongation seminars, during the course of which they gave me many meaningful comments and feedback on the content of drafts of this dissertation.
Fourth, one thing I will never forget is the support and encouragement of the Lund University Faculty of Law and Ho Chi Minh City University of Law during my research. I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Christina Moell, Prof. Bengt Lundell, Prof. Traskman, Asst. Prof. Mai Hong Quy, Dr. Bui Xuan Hai, and many other professors, lecturers, administrative staff and librarians of the two universities. In addition, I also would like to
send my thanks to Suffolk Law School, where I was aided in US antitrust law research. In particular my thanks go to Professor Stephen C. Hicks, Mr. Jonathan D. Messinger and Suffolk’s administrative staff and librarians.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents, my children, my friends and my students for their warm support, encouragement, care and love.
Ho Chi Minh City, August 31, 2011 Tran, Hoang Nga
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List of Abbreviations
ASEAN Associations of South East Asian Nations AAC Average avoidable cost
ATC Average total cost
AVC Average variable cost
CCHC Competition Case Handling Council (Vietnam)
CIEM Central Institute for Economic Management (Vietnam) CJEU Court of Justice of European Union
DOJ Department of Justice (US)
EC European Community (Communities)
EPL English Premier League
EU European Union
EVN Electricity of Vietnam Group
FOEs Foreign owned enteprises
FTAIA Foreign Trade and Antitrust Improvements Act (US)
FTC Federal Trade Commission (US)
GC General Court (EU)
HCTV Hanoi Cable Television
IDRC International Development Research Centre
ICN International Competition Network
LIRC Long run incremental cost
LRAIC Long run average incremental cost
MoF Ministry of Finance (Vietnam)
MoIC Ministry of Information and Communication (Vietnam) MoIT Ministry of Industry and Trade (Vietnam)
MPC Minimum – per – cap policy
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
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SOEs State owned enterprises
SRMC Short-run marginal cost
UN United Nations
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme
US United States of America
VCA Vietnam Competition Authority
VCAD Vietnam Competition Administrative Department VCC Vietnam Competition Council
VFF-FAN Vietnam football supporters association
Viettel Army Telecom Group
VLC Vietnam Law on Competition
VNPT Vietnam Post and Telecommunications Group VSTV Viet Nam Satellite Digital Television
VTV Vietnam National Television
WTO World Trade Organization
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND
Competition and monopoly are integral issues to deal with in a market economy. While many other countries have long experience in dealing with these issues, Vietnam only commenced the process of transitioning from a planned to a market economy a little more than two decades ago. Thus, Vietnam currently faces many theoretical and practical challenges involved in protection of effective competition. Due to its own unique circumstances, abuses of dominance are one of the most serious problems for the Vietnamese market. Research in this field, therefore, has a significant potential for improving the Vietnamese economy. This part of the dissertation presents different perspectives on the relevant issues, in order to explain the importance of the subject. It begins with a discussion on relationship between competition and monopoly. Then a description of economic theories on relationship of prices and competition is briefly presented in order to describe the influence of pricing by enterprises on various kinds of market. It concludes with a description of the legal and practical situation of Vietnam in order to demonstrate the importance of research into the regulation of abusive pricing for the country.
1.1.1.Relationship of competition and monopoly
Competition is an essential feature of a market economy. Fair competition benefits society. Within the overall framework of an intense struggle among suppliers for resources and economic benefit, competition motivates them to improve their performance at all times. Practical benefits are the result, such as the improvement of goods and the quality of service, with consumers getting more reasonable prices day by day. However, competition in the long run may also lead to another result, because, as is
9
often said, “competition sows the seeds of its own destruction”.1 Competition encourages the economic development, but there are always winners and losers, and when winners are too successful and grow in strength beyond a certain limit, they may achieve monopoly positions whereby they are able to prevent others from competing and damage the process as a whole. Especially, monopoly positions contain ability of independently decide, or even govern, prices.
From a philosophical perspective, competition and monopoly are considered to be two dialectically connected sides of a perfect whole.2 Monopoly is the opposite pole of competition: where monopoly exists, competition does not. Like other economic phenomena, monopoly has advantages and disadvantages. When monopoly is the reward for successful competition, it motivates competitors, thus encouraging the development of production and the economy. Enterprises approaching monopoly size by way of successful competition usually have financial and technical strengths, and are often leaders in researching and applying advanced techniques. Their size and economies of scale may Giúp to minimize the fixed costs of each unit, and the monopoly enterprise can satisfy market demand at a low price, fulfil market demand with less waste and free the otherwise wasted resources for other uses. However, once monopoly exists stably and firmly, the market may lose its ability to motivate. Customers are forced to depend on the monopoly enterprise, so any element of balance may be lost. This leads to the enterprise becoming over-confident, ignoring the demands and interests of customers. Furthermore, monopolists may be attempted to abuse their monopoly position by keeping output at a level lower than demand in order to push prices up and maximize profit. In the long term, monopoly may deny consumers and society the ability to choose from among the best alternatives for their demands. Personnel and financial allocation will not be able to maximize efficiencies resulting in serious
1 See e.g. European Commission’s Ninth Report on Competition Policy, Ninth Report on Competition Policy (1979) p.10 ("It is an established fact that competition carries within it the seeds of its own destruction."). Available at
2 Dang, Vu Huan, Regulations on monopoly control and anti-unfair competitive activities in Vietnam [Pháp luật về kiểm soát độc quyền và chống cạnh tranh không lành mạnh ở Việt Nam], National Politics Publisher, Hanoi, 2004, p. 18, in Vietnamese.
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damage to consumers and society.
1.1.2.Pricing in competition and monopoly
In a market economy, prices are one of the most important signs of the state of competition. Prices are established and exercised by economic rules. In a market economy prices are the result of competition. In a comparative metaphor, if demand – supply relationship is considered as the “material bones”, prices are considered to be the “face” and competition is the “soul” of the market.3 Most basic economic concepts are relevant to prices. For example, the market demand curve represents the relationship between price and supply; elasticity of demand measures the relationship between the price of the product and the demand for it; the relationship between prices and costs is used to describe perfect competition as well as monopoly. The question of whether sellers are price-takers or price-makers is applied to identify whether the market is competitive, monopolistic, or oligarchic. In a competitive market, prices are decided by objective economic rules, especially by the interrelation between supply and demand. So sellers must obey the rules and charge the most appropriate prices in the framework of the rules which serve their competition target. Otherwise, they cannot to exist in the long run and will be driven from the market.
Prices are also important tools used by competitors in their struggle for existence and for a position in the market. Pricing is an extremely important job in every enterprise in a market economy. It is the basis for the realization of business targets. In competition, pricing is utilized at the first instance. Strategies applied to other elements of production such as quality, functions, or guarantees, after-sales care, etc., are, after all, of indirect relevance to prices. Pricing can be used for pro-competitive or anti-competitive purposes. In a monopoly market, the power to govern prices is in the hands of the seller. There is a great tendency to exploit that power to extract benefits and maintain the monopolist’s position. Therefore, it is necessary that the power of regulation be in the proper “hands” in order to curb this danger to a competitive market.
1.1.3.Monopoly control laws in US, EU and Vietnam
The market and its self-correcting mechanisms will erode monopoly
3 Nguyen, Nhu Phat, Market and Competition [Thị trường và Cạnh tranh], Forum for discussion about Draft of the Law on Competition, in Vietnamese, available at
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power and eventually it will be eliminated. The extra profit (economic rent) available to a monopoly is an attraction. Thus, if the barriers are low enough, many competitors will enter or re-enter the market. A firm which attempts to enjoy the fruits of monopoly power by increasing prices and lowering output, will lose its monopoly power to others, since over time, its customers will switch to more efficient firms, which undercuts prices and eventually provides welfare benefits through better quality products and services. Consequently, competition does come back to life. However, the problem is that the monopolist is well aware of this threat; and will try his best to find ways of preventing potential competitors from entering the market. There are many situations in which the market mechanism by itself is unable to or inefficient in checking the unfair activities of a monopolist, who wants to maintain his position and nullify the efforts of potential competitors. This creates a role for government intervention in the market to ensure the operation and development of fair competition, and deal with anti-competitive activities and abuse of monopoly power. In a nutshell, government intervention is necessary if free competition is not to destroy itself.
There is another aspect of the process, which we should also not neglect: If markets are permitted to compete without any restraint this will also lead to unfair competitive activities. This is due to the fact that there are many ways to windows and competing fairly is more difficult and requires more from the competitor’s talents, morals, will, patience, and many other factors, while unfair activities are easier to carry out, helping these competitors to reach their objectives with less expense and time and more profit. Thus, if there is no one with sufficient power to point out which activities are wrong and take steps against them, many competitors will act unfairly regardless of morals because of the lure of profit. “The person” with sufficient abilities and power to ensure the benefit of society and protect market participants cannot be other than the Government. In conditions of model market economies, the “invisible hand” - self-correcting mechanism is, admittedly at work but it cannot rule absolutely; the “State’s hand” is needed alongside the “invisible hand”.
Generally, in a market economy, free competition is accepted, but the State utilizes suitable measures to ensure the healthy development of competition and to eliminate the disadvantages of monopoly. Measures usually fall into two groups. Group one includes administrative and economic measures such as taxation policies, price control, monopoly adjustment, and nationalization. Group two include laws regulating competition. Laws on competition include two main areas: anti-unfair competition laws and monopoly control laws. In fact, many countries have an act or laws bearing the name “Anti-Monopoly”. However, no country forbids monopoly in all cases. Monopoly can be the positive result of fair
12
competition (economic monopoly), arise from objective conditions (natural monopoly), or be established by the State to serve its purposes (state monopoly). Therefore, even if they are titled “Anti-Monopoly Acts”, these laws usually focus rather, on controlling the ways in which monopoly arises and the activities of existing monopolies. Monopoly control laws normally regulate three kinds of economic activity: (i) cartels, (ii) mergers, and (iii) abuses of dominant position.
Cartels and mergers are activities that aim at association and unity (no matter whether temporary or permanent, secret or open, loose or tight) in order to create an aggregation of market power which can, under certain conditions, overwhelm, constrain or eliminate rivals. Thus, laws on cartels and mergers aim at preventing the dangers of this type of monopoly formation and of the way it can constrain free competition.
The investigation of the concept of “dominant position” is one of the central tasks of this dissertation and will be presented and analysed more deeply in the next chapter. Understand it in shorthand, common sense way it signifies an entity having enough market power to constrain the market. This can, in most cases, also be called monopoly power. The majority consensus is to permit undertakings to hold dominant positions in a market, while strictly prohibiting abuses by them. Laws on abuses of dominant position aim to regulate the activities of existing monopoly power and prevent the elimination of competition and the harm of general consumers’ welfare.
Looking at the negative side of things, we can see that where a monopoly power is abused to restrain competition, more harm is done than when mere unfair competitive activities are at issue. Therefore, the role of monopoly control laws is as important as anti-unfair competition laws. Abuse of market power not only harms a competitor or some particular customers, but impact consumers and society as a whole. Some even regard monopoly control laws as a higher order in the hierarchical development of anti-unfair competition laws.4 If a constitution is a tool to master political power and force the government to heed the public, then monopoly control laws are tools to master economic power and force that power to obey competitive pressure. Monopoly control laws could thus be considered as one of the main components of the “Economic Constitution”.5
4 Dang, Vu Huan, supra note 2, pp. 77-78,.
5 See e.g. Pham, Duy Nghia, Professional References for Economic Law [Chuyên khảo Luật Kinh Tế], The Hanoi National University, Hanoi, 2004, p. 796, in Vietnamese ; see also, U.S.v. Topco Associates, Inc. 405 U.S. 596,610 (1972)"Antitrust laws in general, and the Sherman Act in particular, are the Magna Carta of free enterprise. They are as important to the preservation of economic freedom and our free-enterprise system as the Bill of Rights is to the protection of our fundamental personal freedoms. And the freedom
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The point in time which is largely regarded as the birth of monopoly control laws is the year 1890 with the passage of the Sherman Act in the United States of America (US).6 After the Sherman Act, the US enacted in turn the Clayton Act7 (1914), the Federal Trade Commission Act8 (1914), the Webb-Pomerene Act9 (1918), the Robinson Patman Act10 (1936), the Wheeler-Lea Act11 (1938), the Celler Kefauver Antimerger Amendment12 (1950), the Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act13 (1976), which all constituted the anti-monopoly laws (in the US called “Anti-Trust Laws”).
guaranteed each and every business, no matter how small, is the freedom to compete-to assert with vigor, imagination, devotion, and ingenuity whatever economic muscle it can muster. Implicit in such freedom is the notion that it cannot be foreclosed with respect to one sector of the economy because certain private citizens or groups believe that such foreclosure might promote greater competition in a more important sector of the economy.")
6 15 U.S.C. §§ 1 et seq.
Section 1"Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal. Every person who shall make any contract or engage in any combination or conspiracy hereby declared to be illegal shall be deemed guilty of a felony,..."
Section 2 "Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine ...or by imprisonment..."
7 15 U.S.C. § 15. "Except as provided in subsection (b) of this section, any person who shall be injured in his business or property by reason of anything forbidden in the antitrust laws may sue therefor in any district court of the United States in the district in which the defendant resides or is found or has an a
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Pháp luật chống định giá lạm dụng của EU, Hoa Kỳ, Việt Nam – So sánh và kinh nghiệm áp dụng cho Việt Nam
Table of Contents
PREFACE ............................................................................................. 5 List of Abbreviations..............................................................................7
1.
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 9
1.1. Background........................................................................................9
1.1.1. Relationship of competition and monopoly ...............................................9
1.1.2. Pricing in competition and monopoly......................................................11
1.1.3. Monopoly control laws in US, EU and Vietnam .....................................11
1.2. Purposes: .......................................................................................... 25
1.3. Definition and delimitation............................................................. 26
1.4. Methods ............................................................................................ 29
1.5. Value of the research:......................................................................31
1.6. Outline..............................................................................................31
2.
AND US LAW .......................................................................................... 33
REGULATIONS AGAINST ABUSIVE PRICING UNDER EU
2.1. Basic rules and concepts on abusive pricing in EU and US......... 33 2.1.1. Basic rules ...............................................................................................33
2.1.1.1. EU Competition Law and US Anti-Trust Law are directed against abusive conduct, which includes abusive pricing ..................................................33
2.1.1.2. Laws against abusive pricing in the EU and the US protect Competition, not Competitors................................................................................45 2.1.2. Concept of Dominant position, Market power and Monopoly power .....48 2.1.2.1. General approach: ..........................................................................48 2.1.2.2. Identification: .................................................................................51 2.1.3. The Relevant Market concept..................................................................57 2.1.3.1. The relevant product market: .........................................................59 2.1.3.2. The relevant geographic market:....................................................62
2.2. Specific forms of abusive pricing ................................................... 64 2.2.1. Excessive pricing:....................................................................................64
2.2.1.1. 2.2.1.2. 2.2.1.3.
Excessive pricing on the selling side..............................................65 Excessive pricing on the buying side .............................................73 Remarks .........................................................................................75
2.2.2. Predatory pricing .....................................................................................76 2.2.2.1. EU test of predatory pricing...........................................................83 2.2.3. Price Squeeze...........................................................................................86 2.2.3.1. Price squeeze in the US..................................................................88 2.2.3.2. Price squeeze in the EU..................................................................92 2.2.4. Price Discrimination ................................................................................98 2.2.4.1. Price discrimination in the US .......................................................99 2.2.4.2. Price discrimination in the EU .....................................................102 2.2.5. Discount or rebate schemes ...................................................................104
3. US
2.3.3. Criminalization and Incarceration: ........................................................134 2.3.4. Remarks.................................................................................................134
ABUSIVE PRICING IN VIETNAM COMPARED WITH EU AND .................................................................................................... 137
3.1. Background, basic rules and concepts......................................... 138 3.1.1. Gradual development of legislation and enforcement capacity .............138 3.1.1.1. Development of Vietnamese laws ................................................138 3.1.1.2. Competent Authorities for regulating abuses of dominance ........146 3.1.2. Recent practices related to of abuse of dominance ................................150
2.2.5.1. Bundled discounts ........................................................................105
2.2.5.2. Single-product royalty discounts..................................................110 2.2.6. Remarks.................................................................................................116
2.3. Remedies to abusive pricing in EU and US laws ........................ 117 2.3.1. Conduct and Structural Remedies..........................................................118
2.3.1.1. 2.3.1.2. 2.3.1.3.
Termination of infringement ........................................................119 Behavioural remedies...................................................................120 Structural Remedies .....................................................................121
2.3.2. Monetary Remedies...............................................................................125
2.3.2.1. 2.3.2.2. 2.3.2.3.
Fines and penalties .......................................................................126 Compensation...............................................................................128 Legal Fees ....................................................................................133
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3.1.2.1. 3.1.2.2. 3.1.2.3. 3.1.2.4. 3.1.2.5.
Vinapco case ................................................................................151 Megastar case ...............................................................................153 K+ issue .......................................................................................154 “Electric pole war”.......................................................................157 Medicine and milk prices .............................................................161
3.1.3. Basic rules .............................................................................................165 3.1.3.1. Abusive conducts including abusive pricing................................165 3.1.3.2. Vietnamese Competition Law protects competition and competitors
170
3.1.4. Concepts ................................................................................................171
3.1.4.1. Dominance and monopoly position..............................................171 3.1.4.2. Relevant market: ..........................................................................175
3.2. Specific forms of abusive pricing in Vietnamese laws................177 3.2.1. Excessive pricing:..................................................................................178
3.2.1.1. 3.2.1.2. 3.2.1.3.
Excessive pricing on the selling side............................................178 Excessive pricing on the buying side ...........................................180 Fixing a minimum re-selling price ...............................................182
3.2.2. Predatory Pricing: ..................................................................................184
3.2.3. Price Discrimination: .............................................................................186
3.2.4. Foreclosing competitors ........................................................................187
3.2.5. Remarks.................................................................................................189
3.3. Remedies to Abusive Pricing ........................................................ 190 3.3.1. Conduct and Structural Remedies..........................................................191 3.3.1.1. Conduct remedies.........................................................................191 3.3.1.2. Structural remedies.......................................................................192 3.3.2. Monetary remedies ................................................................................192 3.3.2.1. Fine ..............................................................................................192 3.3.2.2. Compensation...............................................................................193 3.3.3. Remarks.................................................................................................194
4. SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING VIETNAMESE REGULATIONS ON ABUSIVE PRICING AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 195
4.1. Suggestions for improving the presentation and communication of competition matters....................................................................................196 4.1.1. Publication of VCAD and VCC decisions.............................................196
4.1.2. Categorize abuses of monopoly position along with abuse of a dominant
position
4.1.3. Determination of a dominant position ...................................................198
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5.
4.1.3.1. Single firm dominance .................................................................198
4.1.3.2. Collective dominance...................................................................199 4.1.4. Determination of a relevant market .......................................................199
4.2. Suggestions on regulations on abusive pricing ........................... 200
4.2.1. Excessive pricing...................................................................................200
4.2.2. Predatory pricing ...................................................................................202
4.2.3. Price discrimination ...............................................................................203
4.2.4. Market foreclosure.................................................................................203
4.2.5. Price squeeze .........................................................................................203
4.2.6. Discount and rebate schemes.................................................................204
4.3. Suggestions on remedies for abusive pricing .............................. 205
4.4. Conclusion...................................................................................... 206
Annexes ...................................................................................... 208 1 - Extract of the VLC.........................................................................................208 2 - Extract of the VLC – With suggested amendments .......................................212 3 - Extract of Decree 116/2005 ...........................................................................216 4 - Extract of Decree 116/2005 – with suggested amendments...........................222
...............................................................................................................197
Table of Cases.................................................................................... 228 Official Documents............................................................................ 233 List of websites .................................................................................. 235 BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................. 236
GIỚI THIỆU .......................................................................... 9
1.1. Bối cảnh................................................................................................9
1.1.1. Mối quan hệ giữa cạnh tranh và độc quyền ...............................................9
1.1.2. Định giá trong cạnh tranh và độc quyền......................................................11
1.1.3. Luật kiểm soát độc quyền tại Hoa Kỳ, EU và Việt Nam .....................................11
1.2. Mục đích: .......................................................................................... 25
1.3. Định nghĩa và phân định................................................................. 26
1.4. Phương pháp ............................................................................................... 29
1.5. Giá trị nghiên cứu:.......................................................................31
1.6. Phác thảo.................................................................................................31
2.
VÀ LUẬT CỦA HOA KỲ .......................................................................................... 33
CÁC QUY ĐỊNH CHỐNG LẠM DỤNG GIÁ THEO EU
2.1. Các quy tắc và khái niệm cơ bản về hành vi lạm dụng giá tại EU và Hoa Kỳ......... 33 2.1.1. Các quy tắc cơ bản ...............................................................................................33
2.1.1.1. Luật Cạnh tranh của EU và Luật Chống độc quyền của Hoa Kỳ hướng đến chống lại hành vi lạm dụng, bao gồm cả việc định giá lạm dụng ..................................................33
2.1.1.2. Luật chống định giá lạm dụng ở EU và Hoa Kỳ bảo vệ Cạnh tranh, không phải Đối thủ cạnh tranh.................................................................45 2.1.2. Khái niệm về Vị trí thống lĩnh, Quyền lực thị trường và Quyền lực độc quyền .....48 2.1.2.1. Cách tiếp cận chung: ..........................................................................48 2.1.2.2. Nhận dạng: ................................................................................51 2.1.3. Khái niệm Thị trường có liên quan.................................................................57 2.1.3.1. Thị trường sản phẩm có liên quan: .........................................................59 2.1.3.2. Thị trường địa lý có liên quan:....................................................62
2.2. Các hình thức định giá lạm công cụ thể ................................................... 64 2.2.1. Định giá quá mức:....................................................................................64
2.2.1.1. 2.2.1.2. 2.2.1.3.
Định giá quá mức ở phía bán.................................................65 Định giá quá mức ở phía mua.................................................73 Nhận xét...........................................................................................75
2.2.2. Định giá phá hoại.................................................................................76 2.2.2.1. Kiểm tra định giá phá hoại của EU...........................................................83 2.2.3. Bóp giá.................................................................................................86 2.2.3.1. Bóp giá ở Hoa Kỳ.................................................................88 2.2.3.2. Bóp giá ở EU.................................................................92 2.2.4. Phân biệt giá.................................................................................98 2.2.4.1. Phân biệt giá ở Hoa Kỳ.................................................................99 2.2.4.2. Phân biệt giá tại EU .....................................................102 2.2.5. Các chương trình chiết khấu hay hoàn tiền ....................................................................104
3. Hoa Kỳ
2.3.3. Hình sự hóa và bỏ tù: ................................................................134 2.3.4. Nhận xét.................................................................................................134
GIÁ LẠM DỤNG Ở VIỆT NAM SO VỚI EU VÀ .................................................................................................... 137
3.1. Bối cảnh, các quy tắc và khái niệm cơ bản................................................. 138 3.1.1. Phát triển dần dần pháp luật và năng lực thực thi ...............138 3.1.1.1. Phát triển luật pháp Việt Nam ................................................138 3.1.1.2. Các cơ quan có thẩm quyền quản lý tình trạng lạm dụng vị trí thống lĩnh ........146 3.1.2. Các hoạt động gần đây liên quan đến tình trạng lạm dụng vị trí thống lĩnh ................................150
2.2.5.1. Chiết khấu trọn gói ................................................................105
2.2.5.2. Chiết khấu tiền bản quyền cho một sản phẩm duy nhất................................................110 2.2.6. Ghi chú................................................................................................116
2.3. Biện pháp khắc phục tình trạng định giá lạm dụng trong luật pháp EU và Hoa Kỳ.................................... 117 2.3.1. Biện pháp khắc phục về hành vi và cấu trúc....
PREFACE
This dissertation is the visible result of my Ph.D research within the framework of the joint doctoral program between Lund University Faculty of Law and Ho Chi Minh City University of Law, supported by SIDA’s “Strengthening legal education in Vietnam” project. The research focuses on laws against abuse of a dominant position in the EU, the US and Vietnam utilizing a comparative law approach.
This dissertation would not have been accomplished without the Giúp and contribution of several individuals, to whom I would like to express my deepest appreciation.
First, it was my great honour to be supervised by Professor Hans Henrik Lidgard and Associate Professor Le Thi Bich Tho. Professor Lidgard has given me invaluable guidance, advice and encouragement from the very first to the final steps of the research. He spent a great deal of his precious time reading and commenting my writing, and discussing the issues raised in my drafts. Associate Professor Le Thi Bich Tho provided me not only with warm encouragement throughout the whole process, but also with insightful comments, especially with regard to the approach to Vietnamese law in my dissertation. I would like to express my deep gratitude to Prof. Lidgard and Asst. Prof. Le Thi Bich Tho for being my teachers and supervisors throughout both my masters and doctoral degree programs. I am indebted to them for much of the professional legal content of my dissertation. Any remaining errors are entirely my own.
Second, I would like to send my special thanks to Mr. Robert Schwartz, who helped me to improve my writing in the English language. Moreover, he provided me with many practical comments and relevant and valuable information. Without his help, my dissertation would not reach the standard for international academic writing.
Third, I would like to thank Dr. Nguyen Thanh Tu, Professor Katarina Olsson, and all the other professors, doctors who were opponents or members of examining boards of annual prolongation seminars, during the course of which they gave me many meaningful comments and feedback on the content of drafts of this dissertation.
Fourth, one thing I will never forget is the support and encouragement of the Lund University Faculty of Law and Ho Chi Minh City University of Law during my research. I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Christina Moell, Prof. Bengt Lundell, Prof. Traskman, Asst. Prof. Mai Hong Quy, Dr. Bui Xuan Hai, and many other professors, lecturers, administrative staff and librarians of the two universities. In addition, I also would like to
send my thanks to Suffolk Law School, where I was aided in US antitrust law research. In particular my thanks go to Professor Stephen C. Hicks, Mr. Jonathan D. Messinger and Suffolk’s administrative staff and librarians.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents, my children, my friends and my students for their warm support, encouragement, care and love.
Ho Chi Minh City, August 31, 2011 Tran, Hoang Nga
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List of Abbreviations
ASEAN Associations of South East Asian Nations AAC Average avoidable cost
ATC Average total cost
AVC Average variable cost
CCHC Competition Case Handling Council (Vietnam)
CIEM Central Institute for Economic Management (Vietnam) CJEU Court of Justice of European Union
DOJ Department of Justice (US)
EC European Community (Communities)
EPL English Premier League
EU European Union
EVN Electricity of Vietnam Group
FOEs Foreign owned enteprises
FTAIA Foreign Trade and Antitrust Improvements Act (US)
FTC Federal Trade Commission (US)
GC General Court (EU)
HCTV Hanoi Cable Television
IDRC International Development Research Centre
ICN International Competition Network
LIRC Long run incremental cost
LRAIC Long run average incremental cost
MoF Ministry of Finance (Vietnam)
MoIC Ministry of Information and Communication (Vietnam) MoIT Ministry of Industry and Trade (Vietnam)
MPC Minimum – per – cap policy
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
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SOEs State owned enterprises
SRMC Short-run marginal cost
UN United Nations
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme
US United States of America
VCA Vietnam Competition Authority
VCAD Vietnam Competition Administrative Department VCC Vietnam Competition Council
VFF-FAN Vietnam football supporters association
Viettel Army Telecom Group
VLC Vietnam Law on Competition
VNPT Vietnam Post and Telecommunications Group VSTV Viet Nam Satellite Digital Television
VTV Vietnam National Television
WTO World Trade Organization
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND
Competition and monopoly are integral issues to deal with in a market economy. While many other countries have long experience in dealing with these issues, Vietnam only commenced the process of transitioning from a planned to a market economy a little more than two decades ago. Thus, Vietnam currently faces many theoretical and practical challenges involved in protection of effective competition. Due to its own unique circumstances, abuses of dominance are one of the most serious problems for the Vietnamese market. Research in this field, therefore, has a significant potential for improving the Vietnamese economy. This part of the dissertation presents different perspectives on the relevant issues, in order to explain the importance of the subject. It begins with a discussion on relationship between competition and monopoly. Then a description of economic theories on relationship of prices and competition is briefly presented in order to describe the influence of pricing by enterprises on various kinds of market. It concludes with a description of the legal and practical situation of Vietnam in order to demonstrate the importance of research into the regulation of abusive pricing for the country.
1.1.1.Relationship of competition and monopoly
Competition is an essential feature of a market economy. Fair competition benefits society. Within the overall framework of an intense struggle among suppliers for resources and economic benefit, competition motivates them to improve their performance at all times. Practical benefits are the result, such as the improvement of goods and the quality of service, with consumers getting more reasonable prices day by day. However, competition in the long run may also lead to another result, because, as is
9
often said, “competition sows the seeds of its own destruction”.1 Competition encourages the economic development, but there are always winners and losers, and when winners are too successful and grow in strength beyond a certain limit, they may achieve monopoly positions whereby they are able to prevent others from competing and damage the process as a whole. Especially, monopoly positions contain ability of independently decide, or even govern, prices.
From a philosophical perspective, competition and monopoly are considered to be two dialectically connected sides of a perfect whole.2 Monopoly is the opposite pole of competition: where monopoly exists, competition does not. Like other economic phenomena, monopoly has advantages and disadvantages. When monopoly is the reward for successful competition, it motivates competitors, thus encouraging the development of production and the economy. Enterprises approaching monopoly size by way of successful competition usually have financial and technical strengths, and are often leaders in researching and applying advanced techniques. Their size and economies of scale may Giúp to minimize the fixed costs of each unit, and the monopoly enterprise can satisfy market demand at a low price, fulfil market demand with less waste and free the otherwise wasted resources for other uses. However, once monopoly exists stably and firmly, the market may lose its ability to motivate. Customers are forced to depend on the monopoly enterprise, so any element of balance may be lost. This leads to the enterprise becoming over-confident, ignoring the demands and interests of customers. Furthermore, monopolists may be attempted to abuse their monopoly position by keeping output at a level lower than demand in order to push prices up and maximize profit. In the long term, monopoly may deny consumers and society the ability to choose from among the best alternatives for their demands. Personnel and financial allocation will not be able to maximize efficiencies resulting in serious
1 See e.g. European Commission’s Ninth Report on Competition Policy, Ninth Report on Competition Policy (1979) p.10 ("It is an established fact that competition carries within it the seeds of its own destruction."). Available at
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: ; See also Edward Cattermole, The Development and Implications of 'Collective Dominance' in EC Competition Law, Lund University Centre for European Studies Working Paper No. 14 (2002) p. 14 Available at
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: ; and Marco Lankhorst, Increasing the Requirements to Show Antitrust Harm in Modernised Effects-Based Analysis: An Assessment of the Impact on the Efficiency of Enforcement of Art 81 EC, (2010) (Ph.D. dissertation University of Amsterdam Center for Law & Economics) p.20 ("Yet, competition carries within it the seeds of its own destruction.") Available at
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.2 Dang, Vu Huan, Regulations on monopoly control and anti-unfair competitive activities in Vietnam [Pháp luật về kiểm soát độc quyền và chống cạnh tranh không lành mạnh ở Việt Nam], National Politics Publisher, Hanoi, 2004, p. 18, in Vietnamese.
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damage to consumers and society.
1.1.2.Pricing in competition and monopoly
In a market economy, prices are one of the most important signs of the state of competition. Prices are established and exercised by economic rules. In a market economy prices are the result of competition. In a comparative metaphor, if demand – supply relationship is considered as the “material bones”, prices are considered to be the “face” and competition is the “soul” of the market.3 Most basic economic concepts are relevant to prices. For example, the market demand curve represents the relationship between price and supply; elasticity of demand measures the relationship between the price of the product and the demand for it; the relationship between prices and costs is used to describe perfect competition as well as monopoly. The question of whether sellers are price-takers or price-makers is applied to identify whether the market is competitive, monopolistic, or oligarchic. In a competitive market, prices are decided by objective economic rules, especially by the interrelation between supply and demand. So sellers must obey the rules and charge the most appropriate prices in the framework of the rules which serve their competition target. Otherwise, they cannot to exist in the long run and will be driven from the market.
Prices are also important tools used by competitors in their struggle for existence and for a position in the market. Pricing is an extremely important job in every enterprise in a market economy. It is the basis for the realization of business targets. In competition, pricing is utilized at the first instance. Strategies applied to other elements of production such as quality, functions, or guarantees, after-sales care, etc., are, after all, of indirect relevance to prices. Pricing can be used for pro-competitive or anti-competitive purposes. In a monopoly market, the power to govern prices is in the hands of the seller. There is a great tendency to exploit that power to extract benefits and maintain the monopolist’s position. Therefore, it is necessary that the power of regulation be in the proper “hands” in order to curb this danger to a competitive market.
1.1.3.Monopoly control laws in US, EU and Vietnam
The market and its self-correcting mechanisms will erode monopoly
3 Nguyen, Nhu Phat, Market and Competition [Thị trường và Cạnh tranh], Forum for discussion about Draft of the Law on Competition, in Vietnamese, available at
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power and eventually it will be eliminated. The extra profit (economic rent) available to a monopoly is an attraction. Thus, if the barriers are low enough, many competitors will enter or re-enter the market. A firm which attempts to enjoy the fruits of monopoly power by increasing prices and lowering output, will lose its monopoly power to others, since over time, its customers will switch to more efficient firms, which undercuts prices and eventually provides welfare benefits through better quality products and services. Consequently, competition does come back to life. However, the problem is that the monopolist is well aware of this threat; and will try his best to find ways of preventing potential competitors from entering the market. There are many situations in which the market mechanism by itself is unable to or inefficient in checking the unfair activities of a monopolist, who wants to maintain his position and nullify the efforts of potential competitors. This creates a role for government intervention in the market to ensure the operation and development of fair competition, and deal with anti-competitive activities and abuse of monopoly power. In a nutshell, government intervention is necessary if free competition is not to destroy itself.
There is another aspect of the process, which we should also not neglect: If markets are permitted to compete without any restraint this will also lead to unfair competitive activities. This is due to the fact that there are many ways to windows and competing fairly is more difficult and requires more from the competitor’s talents, morals, will, patience, and many other factors, while unfair activities are easier to carry out, helping these competitors to reach their objectives with less expense and time and more profit. Thus, if there is no one with sufficient power to point out which activities are wrong and take steps against them, many competitors will act unfairly regardless of morals because of the lure of profit. “The person” with sufficient abilities and power to ensure the benefit of society and protect market participants cannot be other than the Government. In conditions of model market economies, the “invisible hand” - self-correcting mechanism is, admittedly at work but it cannot rule absolutely; the “State’s hand” is needed alongside the “invisible hand”.
Generally, in a market economy, free competition is accepted, but the State utilizes suitable measures to ensure the healthy development of competition and to eliminate the disadvantages of monopoly. Measures usually fall into two groups. Group one includes administrative and economic measures such as taxation policies, price control, monopoly adjustment, and nationalization. Group two include laws regulating competition. Laws on competition include two main areas: anti-unfair competition laws and monopoly control laws. In fact, many countries have an act or laws bearing the name “Anti-Monopoly”. However, no country forbids monopoly in all cases. Monopoly can be the positive result of fair
12
competition (economic monopoly), arise from objective conditions (natural monopoly), or be established by the State to serve its purposes (state monopoly). Therefore, even if they are titled “Anti-Monopoly Acts”, these laws usually focus rather, on controlling the ways in which monopoly arises and the activities of existing monopolies. Monopoly control laws normally regulate three kinds of economic activity: (i) cartels, (ii) mergers, and (iii) abuses of dominant position.
Cartels and mergers are activities that aim at association and unity (no matter whether temporary or permanent, secret or open, loose or tight) in order to create an aggregation of market power which can, under certain conditions, overwhelm, constrain or eliminate rivals. Thus, laws on cartels and mergers aim at preventing the dangers of this type of monopoly formation and of the way it can constrain free competition.
The investigation of the concept of “dominant position” is one of the central tasks of this dissertation and will be presented and analysed more deeply in the next chapter. Understand it in shorthand, common sense way it signifies an entity having enough market power to constrain the market. This can, in most cases, also be called monopoly power. The majority consensus is to permit undertakings to hold dominant positions in a market, while strictly prohibiting abuses by them. Laws on abuses of dominant position aim to regulate the activities of existing monopoly power and prevent the elimination of competition and the harm of general consumers’ welfare.
Looking at the negative side of things, we can see that where a monopoly power is abused to restrain competition, more harm is done than when mere unfair competitive activities are at issue. Therefore, the role of monopoly control laws is as important as anti-unfair competition laws. Abuse of market power not only harms a competitor or some particular customers, but impact consumers and society as a whole. Some even regard monopoly control laws as a higher order in the hierarchical development of anti-unfair competition laws.4 If a constitution is a tool to master political power and force the government to heed the public, then monopoly control laws are tools to master economic power and force that power to obey competitive pressure. Monopoly control laws could thus be considered as one of the main components of the “Economic Constitution”.5
4 Dang, Vu Huan, supra note 2, pp. 77-78,.
5 See e.g. Pham, Duy Nghia, Professional References for Economic Law [Chuyên khảo Luật Kinh Tế], The Hanoi National University, Hanoi, 2004, p. 796, in Vietnamese ; see also, U.S.v. Topco Associates, Inc. 405 U.S. 596,610 (1972)"Antitrust laws in general, and the Sherman Act in particular, are the Magna Carta of free enterprise. They are as important to the preservation of economic freedom and our free-enterprise system as the Bill of Rights is to the protection of our fundamental personal freedoms. And the freedom
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The point in time which is largely regarded as the birth of monopoly control laws is the year 1890 with the passage of the Sherman Act in the United States of America (US).6 After the Sherman Act, the US enacted in turn the Clayton Act7 (1914), the Federal Trade Commission Act8 (1914), the Webb-Pomerene Act9 (1918), the Robinson Patman Act10 (1936), the Wheeler-Lea Act11 (1938), the Celler Kefauver Antimerger Amendment12 (1950), the Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act13 (1976), which all constituted the anti-monopoly laws (in the US called “Anti-Trust Laws”).
guaranteed each and every business, no matter how small, is the freedom to compete-to assert with vigor, imagination, devotion, and ingenuity whatever economic muscle it can muster. Implicit in such freedom is the notion that it cannot be foreclosed with respect to one sector of the economy because certain private citizens or groups believe that such foreclosure might promote greater competition in a more important sector of the economy.")
6 15 U.S.C. §§ 1 et seq.
Section 1"Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal. Every person who shall make any contract or engage in any combination or conspiracy hereby declared to be illegal shall be deemed guilty of a felony,..."
Section 2 "Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine ...or by imprisonment..."
7 15 U.S.C. § 15. "Except as provided in subsection (b) of this section, any person who shall be injured in his business or property by reason of anything forbidden in the antitrust laws may sue therefor in any district court of the United States in the district in which the defendant resides or is found or has an a
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